Thursday 6 May 2010 / by Ernest Harsch


Dossier : Africa Renewal

Africa is getting tougher on tyrants, as the African Union responses to the upheavals in Guinea, Niger and Madagascar show. But according to many observers there is still a long way to go.

Not long ago, Africa’s coup makers and autocrats felt confident they could get a pass from their fellow rulers. In recent months, however, as military officers and authoritarian presidents from Guinea to Niger and Madagascar are discovering, Africa is saying “no” — and starting to mean it.

That stance is notable. For decades, most African countries were ruled by military or one-party regimes. In response to popular agitation, much of the continent shifted to multi-party systems in the 1990s. Yet many of Africa’s newly elected leaders were reluctant to criticize less democratic peers.

‘Respect constitutions’

Now that is changing. When the Organization of African Unity transformed itself into the African Union in 2002, the new organization included among its principles “condemnation and rejection of unconstitutional changes of government.”

“Today the norm is that people should respect constitutions,” the UN special representative on West Africa, Said Djinnit, told Africa Renewal. “Whoever makes a move that is unconstitutional should be condemned. And not only condemned, but subject to sanctions.”

But he acknowledges that progress along that road has not been easy or straightforward. Parliaments, political parties, court systems, civil society organizations and other institutions that could defend democratic practices remain weak.

For their part, Africa’s continental and regional bodies are also struggling with the question of how to uphold the principles of democracy. The recent upheavals in Niger highlight the challenges.

Niger: Coup against a coup

In Niger, the initial turn to unconstitutional rule came from within an elected civilian regime. President Mamadou Tandja was first elected in 1999, and then re-elected in 2004, providing a decade of relative stability after years of turbulence.

According to Niger’s constitution, Mr. Tandja should have stepped down when his second term expired in November 2009. But early that year he claimed that he needed a three-year extension, prompting an outcry from the opposition. The Constitutional Court ruled that any change in the presidential term limit would be illegal.

Mr. Tandja reacted by arbitrarily dissolving the court and the National Assembly and arresting many critics. With opposition suppressed, a referendum approved his new constitution, extending his term by three years, and allowing him to run for yet another term. In October the regional Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) suspended Niger, the AU demanded a return to the previous constitutional order and several key donors cut financial aid.

Amidst a tense stalemate, military units detained Mr. Tandja and most of his cabinet and assumed power on 18 February. Thousands of citizens hit the streets to express their support for the new authorities. ECOWAS and the AU condemned the coup on principle. But together with the UN, they also promptly sent a joint delegation to Niger under the leadership of Mr. Djinnit to press the officers to follow through on their pledges to restore democracy.

Within days the soldiers had appointed a civilian prime minister and began consultations on a new constitution and elections. Seeking to reassure the sceptics, the de facto president, Salou Djibo, signed into law a ban on any member of his junta running for office. “The era of autocratic regimes,” he said, “is well and truly over in this country, which has no other wish but to be democratic.”

‘Unfinished business’

As an unconstitutional change of government, Niger seems relatively straightforward: a president arbitrarily scrapped a constitution in defiance of existing institutions. But other situations are less clear, where ruling parties use repression or fraud to influence elections as in Gabon, Togo and Zimbabwe. In such cases, other African leaders have not always agreed on how to respond.

One common target of manipulation has been the presidential term limit. According to H. Kwasi Prempeh, a Ghanaian expert in constitutional law, the adoption of such limits was an important gain for Africa’s pro-democracy movements, designed to prevent incumbents from using their power and wealth to stay in office indefinitely. By 2005, 33 African constitutions contained provisions limiting the number of presidential terms.

Some leaders tried to modify those limits but were defeated by intense domestic opposition. Some succeeded, however, including in Chad, Cameroon and the Congo Republic.

In 2007, an AU summit approved a new African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance. Once it comes into force it will shift Africa further in the direction of “the universal values and principles of democracy and respect for human rights,” the charter’s basic objective. Among other provisions, it recognizes “the supremacy of the constitution” and stipulates that constitutional changes be based on “national consensus.” It prohibits any “perpetrators” of unconstitutional changes from participating in subsequent elections and even warns that coup makers may be tried before an African court.

So far 29 African governments have signed the charter. But only three (Ethiopia, Mauritania and Sierra Leone) have ratified it, notably short of the 15 ratifications needed to bring it into force.

A number of African pro-democracy activists and commentators have expressed skepticism about the ability of the continent’s official organizations to push forward on their own, noting that the gains so far have taken considerable popular mobilization.

Given the number of sitting leaders in Africa who have violated basic democratic norms, commented Adama Ouédraogo Damiss in L’Observateur Paalga, an independent daily in Burkina Faso, “One can legitimately ask whether the AU is really able to face up to this repeated problem of constitutional fiddling.” In West Africa, remarked Senegalese economist Mamadou Ndione, a democratic revolution will not likely come from official bodies like ECOWAS. “It must come from the people.”

Wichtiger Hinweis: Diese E-Mail kann Betriebs- oder Geschaeftsgeheimnisse oder sonstige vertrauliche Informationen enthalten. Sollten Sie diese E-Mail irrtuemlich erhalten haben, ist Ihnen eine Kenntnisnahme des Inhalts, eine Vervielfaeltigung oder Weitergabe der E-Mail ausdruecklich untersagt. Bitte benachrichtigen Sie uns und vernichten Sie die empfangene E-Mail. Vielen Dank.

50 Years Independence of Africa   April 28th, 2010



“After independence we will have to stand on our own and rely on our own resources, the unifying force, the cement…which had hitherto been supplied by the United Kingdom Government will be removed, and will have to be replaced by new virtues of our own which must be capable of keeping all the diverse elements of the country together, in mutual trust and harmony and with a common national purpose.”
Excerpt taken from Awo, the Autobiography of Chief Obafemi Awolowo of Nigeria.

After the Second World War people in Africa wanted change. Only Egypt, Liberia and Ethiopia were independent at that point. But it was Indian self-rule which triggered the momentum leading to independence. Everywhere the mood was hopeful as people were inspired by the vision of a new society free of European control.

In Southern Africa, European settlers wanted to cut the ties with Britain and Portugal, but retain white minority rule, excluding the African population. The fighting resulting from this was violent and destructive to the infrastructure of the countries involved and their independent neighbours. Burdened by apartheid for decades, South Africans were the last people on the continent to attain majority rule. Meanwhile the Cold War conflict between America and the Soviet Union distorted politics at a regional level particularly in the South.

Attaining economic independence proved harder than gaining political independence. In some areas drought and famine destroyed agricultural production; elsewhere war has brought economic activity to a halt.

Political instability on the continent has been both the result and cause of economic difficulties. The cost of living has spiralled, hitting a fast growing urban population.

Attempts to create a strong manufacturing base failed in the main; many African currencies went through substantial periods when they could not be converted into Western currencies.

These negative trends have both caused the intervention of western economic institutions, like the IMF and World Bank, and been the result of that intervention. As a consequence there has been a steady migration of people from the continent to Europe and America looking for a better and more stable quality of life.

Black History Month 2010   April 27th, 2010


The History of Black History Month

The story of Black History Month begins in Chicago during the late summer of 1915. An alumnus of the University of Chicago with many friends in the city, Carter G. Woodson traveled from Washington, D.C. to participate in a national celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of emancipation sponsored by the state of Illinois. Thousands of African Americans traveled from across the country to see exhibits highlighting the progress their people had made since the destruction of slavery. Awarded a doctorate in Harvard three years earlier, Woodson joined the other exhibitors with a black history display. Despite being held at the Coliseum, the site of the 1912 Republican convention, an overflow crowd of six to twelve thousand waited outside for their turn to view the exhibits. Inspired by the three-week celebration, Woodson decided to form an organization to promote the scientific study of black life and history before leaving town. On September 9th, Woodson met at the Wabash YMCA with A. L. Jackson and three others and formed the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History (ASNLH).

Carter G. Woodson believed that publishing scientific history would transform race relations by dispelling the wide-spread falsehoods about the achievements of Africans and peoples of African descent. He hoped that others would popularize the findings that he and other black intellectuals would publish in The Journal of Negro History, which he established in 1916. As early as 1920, Woodson urged black civic organizations to promote the achievements that researchers were uncovering. A graduate member of Omega Psi Phi, he urged his fraternity brothers to take up the work. In 1924, they responded with the creation of Negro History and Literature Week, which they renamed Negro Achievement Week. Their outreach was significant, but Woodson desired greater impact. As he told an audience of Hampton Institute students,
“We are going back to that beautiful history and it is going to inspire us to greater achievements.” In 1925, he decided that the Association had to shoulder the responsibility. Going forward it would both create and popularize knowledge about the black past. He sent out a press release announcing Negro History Week in February, 1926.

Woodson chose February for reasons of tradition and reform. It is commonly said that Woodson selected February to encompass the birthdays of two great Americans who played a prominent role in shaping black history, namely Abraham Lincoln and Frederick Douglass, whose birthdays are the 12th and the 14th, respectively. More importantly, he chose them for reasons of tradition. Since Lincoln’s assassination in 1865, the black community, along with other Republicans, had been
celebrating the fallen President’s birthday. And since the late 1890s, black communities across the country had been celebrating Douglass’. Well aware of the pre-existing celebrations, Woodson built Negro History Week around traditional days of commemorating the black past. He was asking the public to extend their study of black history, not to create a new tradition. In doing so, he increased his chances for success.

Yet Woodson was up to something more than building on tradition. Without saying so, he aimed to reform it from the study of two great men to a great race. Though he admired both men, Woodson had never been fond of the celebrations held in their honor. He railed against the “ignorant spellbinders” who addressed large, convivial gatherings and displayed their lack of knowledge about the men and their contributions to history. More importantly, Woodson believed that history was made by the people, not simply or primarily by great men. He envisioned the study and celebration of the Negro as a race, not simply as the producers of a great man. And Lincoln, however great, had not freed the slaves—the Union Army, including hundreds of thousands of black soldiers and sailors, had done that. Rather than focusing on two men, the black community, he believed, should focus on the countless black men and women who had contributed to the advance of human civilization.

From the beginning, Woodson was overwhelmed by the response to his call. Negro History Week appeared across the country in schools and before the public. The 1920s was the decade of the New Negro, a name given to the Post-War I generation because of its rising racial pride and consciousness. Urbanization and industrialization had brought over a million African Americans from the rural South into big cities of the nation. The expanding black middle class became participants in and consumers of black literature and culture. Black history clubs sprang up, teachers demanded materials to instruct their pupils, and progressive whites stepped and endorsed the efforts.

Woodson and the Association scrambled to meet the demand. They set a theme for the annual celebration, and provided study materials—pictures, lessons for teachers, plays for historical performances, and posters of important dates and people. Provisioned with a steady flow of knowledge, high schools in progressive communities formed Negro History Clubs. To serve the desire of history buffs to participate in the re-education of black folks and the nation, ASNLH formed branches that stretched from coast to coast. In 1937, at the urging of Mary McLeod Bethune, Woodson established the Negro History Bulletin, which focused on the annual theme. As black populations grew, mayors issued Negro History Week proclamations, and in cities like Syracuse progressive whites joined Negro History Week with National Brotherhood Week.

Like most ideas that resonate with the spirit of the times, Negro History Week proved to be more dynamic than Woodson or the Association could control. By the 1930s, Woodson complained about the intellectual charlatans, black and white, popping up everywhere seeking to take advantage of the public interest in black history. He warned teachers not to invite speakers who had less knowledge than the students themselves. Increasingly publishing houses that had previously ignored black topics
and authors rushed to put books on the market and in the schools. Instant experts appeared everywhere, and non-scholarly works appeared from “mushroom presses.” In America, nothing popular escapes either commercialization or eventual trivialization, and so Woodson, the constant reformer, had his hands full in promoting celebrations worthy of the people who had made the history.

Well before his death in 1950, Woodson believed that the weekly celebrations—not the study or celebration of black history–would eventually come to an end. In fact, Woodson never viewed black history as a one-week affair. He pressed for schools to use Negro History Week to demonstrate what students learned all year. In the same vein, he established a black studies extension program to reach adults throughout the year. It was in this sense that blacks would learn of their past on a
daily basis that he looked forward to the time when an annual celebration would no longer be necessary. Generations before Morgan Freeman and other advocates of all-year commemorations, Woodson believed that black history was too important to America and the world to be crammed into a limited time frame. He spoke of a shift from Negro History Week to Negro History Year.

In the 1940s, efforts began slowly within the black community to expand the study of black history in the schools and black history celebrations before the public. In the South, black teachers often taught Negro History as a supplement to United States history. One early beneficiary of the movement reported that his teacher would hide Woodson’s textbook beneath his desk to avoid drawing the wrath of the principal. During the Civil Rights Movement in the South, the Freedom Schools incorporated
black history into the curriculum to advance social change. The Negro History movement was an intellectual insurgency that was part of every larger effort to transform race relations.

The 1960s had a dramatic effect on the study and celebration of black history. Before the decade was over, Negro History Week would be well on its way to becoming Black History Month. The shift to a month-long celebration began even before Dr. Woodson death. As early as 1940s, blacks in West Virginia, a state where Woodson often spoke, began to celebrate February as Negro History Month. In Chicago, a now forgotten cultural activist, Fredrick H. Hammaurabi, started celebrating Negro History Month in the mid-1960s. Having taken an African name in the 1930s, Hammaurabi used his cultural center, the House of Knowledge, to fuse African consciousness with the study of the black past. By the late 1960s, as young blacks on college campuses became increasingly conscious of links with Africa, Black History Month replaced Negro History Week at a quickening pace. Within the Association, younger intellectuals, part of the awakening, prodded Woodson’s organization to change with the times. They succeeded. In 1976, fifty years after the first celebration, the Association used its influence to institutionalize the shifts from a week
to a month and from Negro history to black history. Since the mid-1970s, every American president, Democrat and Republican, has issued proclamations endorsing the Association’s annual theme.

What Carter G. Woodson would say about the continued celebrations is unknown, but he would smile on all honest efforts to make black history a field of serious study and provide the public with thoughtful celebrations.

Daryl Michael Scott
dms@darylmichaelscott.com
Professor of History
Howard University
Vice President of Program, ASALH
© 2009 ASALH
This copy may be republished electronically with the following acknowledgement
and link: By Daryl Michael
Scott for ASALH at www.asalh.org

Leben im Bruderstaat
Über 200.000 junge Menschen aus aller Welt waren bis 1989 eingeladen, sich in der DDR weiterzubilden und den sozialistischen Geist zu verinnerlichen. Für die so genannten Vertragsarbeiter war dies oft der einzige Weg, der Armut ihrer Herkunftsländer zu entkommen. Die DDR konnte mit ihnen billig den Mangel an Arbeitskräften ausgleichen und Wirtschaftspläne erfüllen. Viele blieben – und die DDR wurde für sie zur neuen Heimat.

DW-WORLD.DE erzählt die Geschichte der DDR-Vertragsarbeiter: Wie empfanden sie diese fremde Welt? Was veränderte sich für sie durch den Fall der Mauer 1989 und was ist ihnen vom Leben im Bruderstaat geblieben
Namibia
Kind Nr. 95: Eine deutsch-afrikanische Odyssee

Die Journalistin und Autorin Lucia Engombe, Foto: Ullstein Verlag
Großansicht des Bildes mit der Bildunterschrift: Lucia Engombe: “Kind Nr. 95″
Lucia Engombe war eines der namibischen Kinder, die in die DDR geschickt wurden, um Ausbildung und sozialistische Gesinnung zu erhalten. Sie erlebte eine unbeschwerte Jugend in Ostdeutschland – bis die Mauer fiel.

“Plötzlich hörte ich jemanden meinen Namen rufen. Ich drehte mich um und sah einen weißen Mann mit zwei Afrikanern auf mich zukommen. Der Deutsche fragte mich: ‘Lucia, willst du mit nach Deutschland fliegen?’ Ich erinnere mich an diese Frage und die Gefühle, die sie bei mir auslöste, deutlich: mein Herz tat vor Freude einen Riesensprung! Obwohl ich nicht die geringste Ahnung hatte, was das sein sollte: Deutschland… Endlich durfte ich auch mal fort aus Nyango! Weg von einem Ort, an dem ich stets Hunger und oft Angst hatte. Ich würde ja wiederkommen…”. So erinnert sich Lucia Engombe an den Tag, der Leben veränderte. Darüber schreibt sie in ihrem Buch: “Kind Nr. 95 – Meine deutsch-afrikanische Odyssee”.

Katatura (Township von Windhuk, Namibia), aktuelle Aufnahme, Foto: Anja KochBildunterschrift: Großansicht des Bildes mit der Bildunterschrift: Flucht aus der Armut: Für viele war die DDR eine ChanceLucia war sieben; ihre Eltern Freiheitskämpfer bei der SWAPO, der “South West Africa People’s Organization”, die für eine Unabhängigkeit Namibias und gegen die damals bereits 70 Jahre andauernde Besatzung durch Südafrika kämpften. Wie viele, lebten sie in einem Flüchtlingslager in Sambia. Aus diesem Elend heraus zu kommen, war Lucias Traum. Er erfüllte sich am 18. Dezember 1979, als sie mit rund 100 anderen namibischen Kindern in die DDR ausgeflogen wurde.

Eine neue Welt

Nach der Unabhängigkeit würde man eine neue Elite brauchen, so die Überlegungen der SWAPO, darum schickte sie ab den 1970er Jahren mehrere hundert Kinder in die DDR, um sie dort ausbilden zu lassen. Das Zentralkomitee der SED unterstützte das Projekt, schließlich sollten die afrikanischen Völker sich künftig dem Kommunismus und nicht dem Kapitalismus zuwenden, so hoffte man.

Staunend kam Lucia in eine neue Welt: “Das Licht war total anders, in Deutschland gab es Licht und Lampen”, erinnert sie sich an ihre ersten Eindrücke, “hohe große Gebäude, moderne Toiletten; und es gab Früchte, wie Äpfel und Birnen, die ich noch nie im Leben gegessen hatte!”

Die ersten Wörter, die Lucia in Ostdeutschland lernte, waren “Schloss”, denn die namibischen Kinder wurden im Schloss Bellin in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern abgeschirmt unterbracht – und “Schnee”: Für beides gab es in ihrer Sprache Oshivambo keinen Ausdruck, und noch nie hatten die Kinder Schnee gesehen: “Wir dachten, dass sei Zucker und wir sind im Zuckerland!”, erzählt sie. In dem Flüchtlingslager, wo sie aufgewachsen war, war Zucker etwas Seltenes und Begehrtes, “weißes Gold”, sagt sie.

Das Rostocker Fischkombinat bei der Aus- und Weiterbildung von afrikanischen Fischern, Quelle: Bundesarchiv/ Jürgen SindermannBildunterschrift: Junge Namibier erhielten in der DDR ihre Ausbildung – im Gegenzug brachten sie ihre Arbeitskraft ein und verinnerlichen den sozialistischen Geist, so die Überlegung damals. Bundesarchiv:

Unbeschwerte Jugend

Doch sie erinnert sich auch an Heimweh und das sehnsüchtige Warten auf die Briefe ihrer Mutter. Und an “Teacher Jonas”, einen namibischen Erzieher, den die SWAPO als Aufpasser mit nach Deutschland geschickt hatte: Täglich gab es Appelle, sie lernten marschieren, Strammstehen und die SWAPO zu verehren.

1985, nach fünfeinhalb Jahren in Bellin, wechselte Lucias Gruppe an die “Schule der Freundschaft” in Staßfurt. Die jungen Namibier kamen in die Pubertät, sie tanzten und küssten sich und hatten zum ersten Mal Liebeskummer, während sie in der Schule weiter zur zukünftigen Elite Namibias ausgebildet und ideologisch eingenordet wurden: “Seht her, in der DDR braucht keiner zu hungern und es gibt keine Arbeitslosen!”, habe es da immer geheißen, so Lucia. Im Westen hingegen hätten die Menschen herum gelungert, keine Arbeit besessen und obdachlos gewesen. “Die Gegensätze wurden immer hervor gehoben”, erinnert sie sich.

Die ‘Schule der Freundschaft’ in Staßfurt, Foto: Marta BarrosoBildunterschrift: Großansicht des Bildes mit der Bildunterschrift: Die “Schule der Freundschaft” in StaßfurtTrotz linientreuem Staatsbürgerunterricht waren Lucia und ihre namibischen Freunde fasziniert vom Westen: Von Whitney Houston und Bruce Springsteen, bis hin zu Bravo und “Bubble Gum”: “Konsumgüter, wie Haribo und Kinderschokolade waren ja ganz selten bei uns”, erzählt sie lachend, “und die Bravo war sehr beliebt bei uns, Doktor Sommer und so… da habe ich gerne drin geschnüffelt!”

Die Welt verändert sich

Doch allmählich veränderte sich die Welt um sie herum: In der Deutschen Demokratische Republik traten ab Sommer 1989 erste Verfallserscheinungen zu Tage; in Afrika entstand ein anderer Staat. “Wir waren von beiden Entwicklungen direkt betroffen. Aber wir bekamen das kaum mit”, erinnert sich Lucia, “denn es geschahen in dieser Zeit so viele Dinge gleichzeitig, und einige widersprachen sich völlig!”

Als immer häufiger der Unterricht ausfiel und immer mehr Lehrer fehlten, merkten sie und ihre Mitschüler, dass sich etwas veränderte: “Unser Staatsbürgerkundelehrer war plötzlich verschwunden, und wir hören, dass er im Westen gewesen war. Er kam zurück und erzählte plötzlich, der Westen sei gar nicht so schlecht… er war wie ausgewechselt!”, erinnert sich díe Namibierin.

Rückkehr in die fremde Heimat

Das Buch von Lucia Engombe: ‘Kind Nr. 95 – Meine deutsch-afrikanische Odyssee’, Cover: Ullstein VerlagBildunterschrift: Großansicht des Bildes mit der Bildunterschrift: Das Buch von Lucia Engombe: “Kind Nr. 95″Als schließlich die Mauer fiel, wurden die so genannten “DDR-Kinder” wieder in ihre Heimat geschickt. Für Lucia ging es 1990 nach 11 Jahren zurück nach Namibia, ein für sie mittlerweile fremdes Land. Lucias Enttäuschung war grenzenlos, als sie in ein Auffanglager gewiesen wurde und es tagelang nicht verlassen durfte. Angst habe sie gehabt, vor der ungewissen Zukunft, dass sie in die Armut abrutsche, keine Schule finden und ihre Mutter nicht ausfindig machen würde, sagt sie heute: “Unsere Stimmung war am Boden, wir waren total fertig, und ich habe geheult!”

Aber Lucia war stark. Sie machte ihren Schulabschluss an der Deutschen Schule in Windhoek und studierte Journalistik. Seit fünf Jahren arbeitet sie nun für den namibischen Rundfunksender NBC in der deutschen Redaktion. Und sie moderiert nicht nur auf Deutsch, sie denkt und schreibt auch am liebsten auf Deutsch: “Ich fühle mich deutsch, ich koche deutsch, am liebsten Spinat mit Kartoffeln und Spiegelei und ich singe ich auf deutsch!”

Seine Identität bekomme man schließlich durch die Vergangenheit und die Erfahrungen, die man mache: “Ich bin Namibierin und Deutsche zugleich”, sagt sie und die Bilanz über ihre Zeit als “DDR-Kind” fällt positiv aus: “Es war eine gute Sache, ich habe eine gute Ausbildung bekommen und gelernt, unabhängig und frei zu denken. Ich bin dankbar, ich kann nur danke sagen!”

Autorin: Barbara Gruber
Redaktion: Ina Rottscheidt

Mosambik
Die “Schule der Freundschaft”


In den 1970er Jahren wurde in der kleinen Stadt Staßfurt in Sachsen-Anhalt die “Schule der Freundschaft” gegründet. Hier sollten hunderte mosambikanische Kinder eine Schul- und Berufsausbildung bekommen.

Präsident Samora Machel hat einmal gesagt, Schüler sollen wie Tomaten sein”, erinnert sich Heinz Berg, er erzählt gerne. Über die “Schule der Freundschaft” spricht er so, als wäre sie vor kurzem erst eingeweiht worden. Berg war dort Internatsleiter, 20 Jahre ist das her. “Wenn die Tomate reif ist”, so Berg weiter, “platzt sie und die Kerne fliegen überall hin! So ungefähr hatte sich das zumindest die mosambikanische Seite vorgestellt.”

Die Vorstellung von reifen Tomaten, die Samora Machel, der erste Präsident Mosambiks und Anführer der sozialistischen Frelimo-Partei hatte, passte nur zu gut zu dem Projekt “Schule der Freundschaft”. Joachim Scheuermann war Physiklehrer im “Objekt Mosambik”, wie die Schule der Freundschaft damals genannt wurde. Für ihn war die Schule so, wie sich die Frelimo-Partei das ausgemalt hatte: “Sie dachten: ‘Wir schicken unsere Kinder nach Staßfurt in der DDR. Dort erhalten sie eine Schul- und eine Berufsausbildung. Dann kommen sie wieder nach Mosambik und bauen die Industrie auf’”, erinnert er sich.

Honecker-Bild zur Begrüßung

Heinz Berg (vorne links) bei der Vergabe der Gruppen am ersten Tag. Autor: Marta BarrosoBildunterschrift: Großansicht des Bildes mit der Bildunterschrift: Devotionalien zur Begrüßung: Heinz Berg am ersten SchultagDDR-Staatschef Erich Honecker hatte 1979 auf einer Afrika-Reise auch Mosambik besucht. Als er zurückkam, hatte er diverse Freundschafts- und Kooperationsverträge im Gepäck, darunter auch das Projekt “Schule der Freundschaft”. 899 mosambikanische Kinder sollten demnach vier Jahre lang eine Schulausbildung in der DDR bekommen und anschließend zwei Jahre lang einen Beruf erlernen: als Koch, als Elektriker oder als Wäscherin, insgesamt 40 Berufe standen zur Auswahl.

Bei ihrer Ankunft hätten die Schüler allerdings noch nicht einmal ihre Zimmer zu sehen bekommen, sondern seien sofort zum Appell geführt worden, erinnert sich Heinz Berg lachend: “Und zur Begrüßung bekamen sie nicht etwa eine Scheibe Brot mit Salz zum essen, sondern ein Honecker-Bild!”

Schule mit Symbolcharakter

Die Einrichtung wurde zum Lieblingsprojekt von Graça Machel, der Ehefrau des mosambikanischen Präsidenten und damaligen Bildungsministerin des Landes. Wo heute der Parkplatz der Schule ist, hatte Graça Machel einst zusammen mit Margot Honecker zwei Bäume gepflanzt, denn die Schule war ein offizielles Symbol der internationalen Solidarität.

Doch auch der DDR sollte sie Vorteile einbringen, insbesondere wirtschaftlicher Art: Der sozialistische Staat plante, in mosambikanische Großprojekte zu investieren. Und in diesen Projekten, entsinnt sich Physiklehrer Joachim Scheuermann, sollten die Schulabsolventen eingesetzt werden. “Sie sollten eigentlich Mosambik aufbauen, die Industrie, einzelne Betriebe. Und sie sollten leitende Mitarbeiter werden, die ihre Kenntnisse, die sie bei uns erworben haben, dort umsetzen.” Hinzu kam, dass die DDR kostengünstig Produkte aus dem sozialistischen Bruderstaat importierte, wie etwa mosambikanische Steinkohle.

Nach der Ausbildung in den Krieg
Der ehemalige Schüler Custódio Tamele und Physiklehrer Joachim Scheuermann, Foto: Marta BarrosoBildunterschrift: Großansicht des Bildes mit der Bildunterschrift: Gemeinsame Erinnerungen: Der ehemalige Schüler Custódio Tamele und Physiklehrer ScheuermannMit dem Tod von Präsident Samora Machel 1986 begann jedoch das letzte Kapitel der “Schule der Freundschaft”: Vor dem Hintergrund von Bürgerkrieg und Wirtschaftskrise änderte Mosambik seinen politischen Kurs und entfernte sich immer mehr vom Sozialismus: “Es ist dann nicht das Ergebnis heraus gekommen, was man sich vorgestellt hat,” erinnert sich Joachim Scheuermann noch heute mit etwas Wehmut.

1988, bereits ein Jahr vor dem Mauerfall und dem Zusammenbruch der DDR, ging das “Projekt Schule der Freundschaft” zu Ende. Die erste Generation der mosambikanischen Jugendlichen war mit ihrer Ausbildung fertig und kehrte in ihr Heimatland zurück. Doch da erwartete sie zunächst keine rosige Zukunft: Mosambik führte immer noch Krieg und an die geplanten Aufbaumaßnahmen war nicht zu denken. Stattdessen wurden die Jugendlichen am Flughafen in der Hauptstadt Maputo abgeholt und direkt in die Armee eingezogen, ohne ihre Familien gesehen zu haben. Nach Staßfurt wurde keine neue Generation mosambikanischer Schüler mehr geschickt.

Autorin: Marta Barroso
Redaktion: Ina Rottscheidt

Benin
Der Voodoo-Prinz von Tempelhof


Als Student der Verkehrsplanung kam Alain Maurice Bokpe aus dem sozialistischen Benin in die DDR. Heute ist er Voodoo-Meister mit Prinzentitel – und verkauft Voodoo-Reisen in seine Heimat.

Einen afrikanischen Prinzen und Voodoo-Meister stellt man sich anders vor. Gänzlich unexotisch sitzt der Würdenträger an einem verregneten Dienstagvormittag im grauen Anzug in seinem Büro mitten im Industriegebiet von Berlin-Tempelhof. Nur die Fotos an der Wand erzählen von seinem anderen Leben: Sie zeigen ihn in weißen Gewändern, umgeben von Menschentrauben; Hände schüttelnd mit deutschen Politikern und bunte, weit in die Vergangenheit zurückreichende Stammbäume. Er nennt sich “Prinz Alain-Maurice Kodjo Dah Bokpe von Allada”, sein Königreich heißt Alladahonou und liegt im Süden des Benin. Drei Millionen Menschen gehören zu seinem Volk. Doch ahnungslose Kunden oder Nachbarn in Tempelhof nennen ihn nur “Herr Bokpe”. Und der grüßt immer freundlich.

Rückblende 1981: Als Alain Maurice Bokpe kam er mit einem Stipendium nach Gotha und studierte dort Bahn-Ingenieurwesen. Seine Heimat war 1975 in die “Volksrepublik Benin” umbenannt und der Marxismus-Leninismus zur Staatsideologie erklärt worden. Zur DDR entwickelten sich freundschaftliche Beziehungen, man schickte junge Menschen zur Ausbildung nach Ostdeutschland.

Kulturschock

Der damals 19-jährige Bokpe war einer von ihnen, “ich wollte etwas Anderes machen als die Anderen”, erzählt er heute über seine Motive. Über Deutschland wusste er damals nicht viel, nur “dass die Männer alle einen Bart tragen und die Frauen so groß sind”, erinnert er sich. Der Kulturschock kam prompt: “Bei uns ist es Tradition, sonntags vor der Kirche nichts zu essen”, erzählt er von seiner ersten Zeit in Gotha, der junge Student war zum Mittagessen eingeladen: “Ich hatte also großen Hunger, als ich aus der Kirche kam. Mein Freund hatte gekocht und es roch so lecker!” Doch Bokpe war es gewohnt, dass sich der Gast zieren muss und die Aufforderung zu Essen, mehrfach höflich ablehnt, bis der Gastgeber insistiert und es ihm quasi aufdrängt. “Er fragte mich, ob ich essen möchte: Ich sagte: ‘nein’ und er fragte nicht wieder und aß alles alleine auf! Ich war geschockt!”, erzählt er heute lachend. “Danach habe ich immer sofort ‘ja’ gesagt!”

In der DDR lernt er auch seine spätere Frau Annette aus dem süd-thüringischen Tabarz kennen. Die beiden begegnen sich im Zug nach Ostberlin, finden Gefallen aneinander, ein Jahr später sind sie verlobt, kurz darauf kommt die erste Tochter zur Welt. Sie richten sich ein Leben in Ostberlin ein: Sie baut ein kleines Reiseunternehmen auf, er fährt Taxi und tingelt zwischen Ost- und Westdeutschland hin und her – bis zum 9. November 1989: Für Bokpe ein Grund zur Freude – aber auch das Scheitern einer großen Idee: “Als ich in die DDR kam, hatte ich Ideale, denn Benin war ja auch sozialistisch und theoretisch war der Marxismus-Leninismus etwas Positives”, sagt er heute mit Bedauern.

Zum Internationalen Studententag (17.11.) – 350 ausländische Studenten aus 36 Ländern studieren zur Zeit an der Technischen Hochschule Ilmenau. Im Praktikumslabor erarbeiten der wissenschaftliche Assistent Wolfgang Eckardt, Arnel Akle aus Benin, Slavomir Topyla aus der VRP und Pham Nguyen Long aus der SRV (vlnr) Studienprogramme zur Steuerung von realen Vorgängen. Sie gehören zum wissenschaftlichen Bereich der Sektion Technische und Biomedizinische Kybernetik der TH,

Die persönliche Wende

Er erlebte seine persönliche Wende 1997, als er auf Heimaturlaub in Benin war: Bewohner der Provinz Allada erkennen in ihm den seit langem angekündigten neuen Herrscher und krönen ihn im Handumdrehen zu ihrem Prinzen. In Benin gibt es zahlreiche Königshäuser, die aus der Zeit vor der französischen Kolonialisierung stammen. Prinzen und Könige haben dabei wenig mit europäischen Monarchen zu tun, sie sind vielmehr Stammeshäuptlinge von Clans, die im Land das Sagen haben.

Auch religiöse Funktionen hat Bokpe, den Begriff “Voodoo-Prinz” mag er allerdings nicht so gerne: “Ich stamme von einem Land, das die Wiege des Voodoo ist, doch hier denken die meisten Menschen an Puppen, schwarze Magie und geköpfte Hühner. Aber Voodoo ist eine Lebensart, eine Religion!”

Der Platz des Prinzen ist heute in Berlin. Teilweise zumindest. Hier ist er der Generalbevollmächtigte für Europa-Angelegenheiten des Königs von Allada und der internationale Exekutivsekretär der Diplomatenakademie Afrikas. Und nebenher führt er sein Reisebüro in Tempelhof und verkauft Voodoo-Reisen nach Benin. Und mehrfach im Jahr tauscht er seinen Anzug gegen ein Voodoo-Gewand und herrscht in seinem Tempel am Strand von Benin. Dort, so erzählt er, tragen hübsche Frauen ihm stets einen Sonnenschirm hinterher.

Autorin: Ina Rottscheidt
Redaktion: Carolin Hebig

Über 200.000 junge Menschen aus aller Welt waren bis 1989 eingeladen, sich in der DDR weiterzubilden und den sozialistischen Geist zu verinnerlichen. Für die so genannten Vertragsarbeiter war dies oft der einzige Weg, der Armut ihrer Herkunftsländer zu entkommen. Die DDR konnte mit ihnen billig den Mangel an Arbeitskräften ausgleichen und Wirtschaftspläne erfüllen. Viele blieben – und die DDR wurde für sie zur neuen Heimat.

DW-WORLD.DE erzählt die Geschichte der DDR-Vertragsarbeiter: Wie empfanden sie diese fremde Welt? Was veränderte sich für sie durch den Fall der Mauer 1989 und was ist ihnen vom Leben im Bruderstaat geblieben?

Mosambiks enttäuschte Rückkehrer

Mosambik, Maputo: ehemalige mosambikanische DDR-Gastarbeiter (sogenannte Madgermanes) protestieren in der Hauptstadt Maputo für die Auszahlung ihrer in der DDR erworbenen Sozialabgaben. Bis heute protestieren Mosambiks einstige DDR-Vertragsarbeiter Rund 20.000 junge Mosambikaner wurden in den 1970er Jahren in die DDR geschickt. Sie sollten dort zur neuen Elite ihres Landes ausgebildet werden. Doch von dieser Hoffnung blieb nicht viel übrig.

Jeden Mittwoch versammeln sie sich im Park “Jardim Vinte e Oito de Maio” im Zentrum Maputos, schwenken Deutschland-Fahnen, reden über vergangene Zeiten und demonstrieren für mehr Geld: Auch 20 Jahre nach ihrer Rückkehr in die Heimat treffen sich die ehemaligen DDR-Vertragsarbeiter dort. “Madgermanes” werden sie genannt, eine Verballhornung des Begriffs “Made in Germany”. Bis heute gelten sie als eine der politisch aktivsten Gruppen Mosambiks. Sie eint die Erinnerung an die gemeinsame Zeit in der DDR, aber auch der Frust über ihre Rückkehr nach dem Fall der Mauer.

Solidarität oder Eigennutz?

Ihre Geschichte begann am 24. Februar 1979, als die DDR und die damalige Volksrepublik Mosambik, beim Besuch des damaligen Staatsratsvorsitzenden Erich Honecker in Maputo, einen Vertrag zum Austausch von Vertragsarbeitern unterschrieben: Ein Zeichen der Völkerverständigung und gegenseitigen Solidarität, wie beide Seiten damals betonten.

Der Vertrag war nicht uneigennützig: Das vom Bürgerkrieg zerstörte Mosambik erhoffte sich qualifizierte Facharbeiter zum Aufbau einer Industrie und wollte Devisen erwirtschaften, um die Schuldenberge, die es im Handel mit der DDR aufgetürmt hatte, abzutragen. Die DDR ihrerseits bekam die dringend benötigten Arbeitskräfte.

Insgesamt 20.141 Mosambikaner kamen in die DDR um dort zu arbeiten, doch nach dem Fall der Mauer 1989 und dem Kollaps des sozialistischen Wirtschaftssystems wurden sie nicht mehr gebraucht: Am 28. Mai 1990 änderten die DDR und Mosambik das Entsende-Abkommen und in den Folgemonaten kehrten fast alle Mosambikaner in ihre Heimat zurück.

Demonstrationen im Park ‘Jardim Vinte e Oito de Maio’, Foto: Friedrich StarkBildunterschrift: Jeden Mittwoch treffen sich die so genannten “Madgermanes” im Zentrum Maputos, um für die Auszahlung ihrer in der DDR erworbenen Sozialabgaben demonstrieren.

Einzug des Kapitalismus

Einer von ihnen ist Eusébio Demba, der 1980 nach Deutschland gekommen war und nach einem achtmonatigen Deutschkurs im sächsischen Marienberg für das Motorenwerk Zschopau MZ als Übersetzer gearbeitet hatte.

Eigentlich hätten die mosambikanischen Vertragsarbeiter mit ihrem in Deutschland erworbenen Wissen den Sozialismus in Mosambik stärken sollen. Doch als sie nach dem Mauerfall heimkehrten, hatte auch in Mosambik der Kapitalismus Einzug gehalten, erinnert sich Eusébio: “Hier gab es die gleichen Veränderungen, die wir in Deutschland miterlebt hatten.“

Eusébio Demba, Quelle: Wortberg/DEDBildunterschrift: Großansicht des Bildes mit der Bildunterschrift: Eusébio Demba kam 1980 ins sächsische Marienberg Bereits vor dem Fall der Mauer hatte sich Mosambik den Vorgaben des Internationalen Währungsfonds und der Weltbank angenähert. Nach 1987 übernahm die ehemals sozialistische Front für die Befreiung Mosambiks “Frelimo” (“Frente de Libertação de Moçambique”) zunehmend marktwirtschaftliche Prinzipien und schaffte die Planwirtschaft ab.

Rückkehr in den Bürgerkrieg

Zudem herrschte in Eusébios Heimat immer noch Bürgerkrieg, der bis 1992 fast eine Million Menschen das Leben gekostet und fünf Millionen Menschen heimatlos gemacht hatte. Keine guten Voraussetzungen, um mehrere tausend Rückkehrer aus der DDR zu empfangen, erinnert sich Eusébio: “Die Regierung war mit dem Krieg beschäftigt, die Heimkehrer aus Deutschland waren ein vergleichsweise kleines Problem”, sagt er.

Eusébio Demba hat in den vergangenen Jahren im deutsch-mosambikanischen Kulturinstitut ICMA, dem Goethe-Zentrum von Maputo, gearbeitet, wo er seine Deutschkenntnisse gut anwenden konnte. Darum zieht er auch ein positives Fazit seiner Zeit in der DDR: “Unser Aufenthalt war schon ein Privileg”, sagt er, denn das Erlernte sei für viele wichtig gewesen: Nicht nur in Bezug auf die Sprache, sondern auch auf die Kultur, die Produktionsprozesse und die Einstellung zur Arbeit.

Doch nicht alle hatten so ein Glück: Viele hätten es nicht geschafft, sich sozial und wirtschaftlich wieder einzugliedern, sagt Eusébio Demba. Sie litten unter Arbeitslosigkeit und fühlten sich in die hintere Reihe zurückgedrängt – das sei die negative Seite des Deutschland-Aufenthaltes.

Mosambikanerinnen bei der Berufsausbildung in der Textilindustrie beim VEB Frottana Großschönau (Landkreis Löbau-Zittau) Über 20.000 Mosambikaner wurden in die DDR geschickt. Dort sollten sie eine gute Ausbildung bekommen und ihrem Land später beim Wiederaufbau helfen. Für viele erfüllten sich die Hoffnung auf ein Elite-Dasein nicht.

Streit ums Geld

Eine von ihnen ist Judite Armando, die 1980 im Alter von 18 Jahren nach Ilmenau geschickt wurde, um im “Volkseigenen Betrieb Elektroglas” zu arbeiten. Sie musste dafür ihre Schulausbildung unterbrechen, während ihre damaligen Klassenkameraden den Abschluss machten, studierten und heute gut bezahlte Jobs haben. “Ich dagegen habe ein miserables Leben”, lautet Judites ernüchternde Bilanz. Sie musste ihren Aufenthalt abbrechen, weil sie schwanger wurde – so sahen es die Regeln für die Vertragsarbeiter damals vor. “Ich bin nach meiner Rückkehr in eine sehr schwierige Lage gekommen, ich konnte nicht einmal meine Habseligkeiten aus Deutschland mitbringen, weil alles so schnell gehen musste”, erinnert sie sich.

In der DDR war ihr, wie allen Vertragsarbeitern, ein Teil des Gehaltes abgezogen und an die mosambikanische Regierung überwiesen worden, das ihnen nach der Rückkehr in die Heimat ausgezahlt werden sollte. Doch bis heute streiten sich die ehemaligen Vertragsarbeiter mit dem Arbeitsministerium: Dabei geht es vor allem um den Wechselkurs. Die Regierung will zum nominalen Tauschkurs auszahlen, der aber durch die hohe Inflation in Mosambik inzwischen stark entwertet wurde. Die ehemaligen Vertragsarbeiter dagegen verlangen hingegen einen Inflationsausgleich.

Judite Armando ging sogar leer aus: Selbst wer nur sechs Monate geblieben sei, habe Anrecht auf Rückzahlungen, empört sie sich. “Ich war zwei Jahre dort! Wie ist es dann möglich, dass ich überhaupt nichts bekomme?”, fragt sie.

Die Bewegung der “Madgermanes”

Bürgerkrieg in Mosambik (Archiv 1983, Foto: ap)Bildunterschrift: Großansicht des Bildes mit der Bildunterschrift: Der Bürgerkrieg in Mosambik von 1977 bis 1992 hinterließ ein zerstörtes Land.Diese Gelder sind einer der Streitpunkte der “Madgermanes”, die sich jede Woche im “Jardim Vinte e Oito de Maio” treffen. Zum Höhepunkt ihrer Proteste im Jahr 2004 waren sie sogar ins Parlament eingedrungen und hatten für drei Tage die Deutsche Botschaft besetzt gehalten. Inzwischen hat ihre Bewegung an Kraft verloren, die “Madgermanes” sind in zahlreiche kleine, untereinander konkurrierende Verbände gespalten. Das Arbeitsministerium Mosambiks erklärt, es gäbe nichts mehr zu verhandeln, alle Berechtigten hätten ihr Geld erhalten. Die “Akte Madgermanes” sei geschlossen, sagt die Arbeitsministerin Helena Taipo.

So wie Judite Armando warten 20 Jahre nach dem Fall der Mauer zahlreiche ehemalige mosambikanische Vertragsarbeiter immer noch darauf, dass ihr Potential entdeckt wird. Einige von ihnen konnten bei deutschen Institutionen unterkommen, manche haben es an anderer Stelle geschafft, ihre in der DDR erworbenen Kenntnisse einzusetzen. Viele aber schlagen sich mit Gelegenheitsjobs durchs Leben oder sind arbeitslos. Ein hartes Schicksal für diejenigen, die eigentlich die Elite des Mosambiks werden sollten.

Autor: Johannes Beck

Falush Mura arrive at Ben Gurion airport, 19.01.10 (Photo: Brian Hendler, Jewish Agency)
Many of those who have been allowed to enter already have relatives in Israel (Photo: Brian Hendler, Jewish Agency)

Israel has restarted an immigration scheme for Ethiopians of Jewish descent after halting it for more than a year.

Eighty-one new immigrants arrived on a flight from Ethiopia to Tel Aviv early on Tuesday morning.

It is the first flight since August 2008, when Israel said it planned to end the immigration scheme.

The Falash Mura community converted to Christianity under pressure in the 19th Century. Some 8,000 still in Ethiopia want to emigrate to Israel.

The scheme was halted in 2008 after the arrival of the last of some 20,000 people the Israeli government agreed to allow entry in 2003.

But campaigners have continued to press for those still waiting – many in poor conditions in transit camps – to be allowed into Israel.

Ethiopian Jews being airlifted to Israel
Many Jews were airlifted to Israel in 1991

Israeli officials have been checking their cases individually, a process which has proven difficult in the past because of histories of intermarriage with Ethiopia’s Christian majority, and a lack of records.

The Jewish Agency, which facilitates the immigration, said the 81 were the first of 600 people who had already been determined to be eligible to come to Israel.

It said it expects another 2,000 people to be allowed to come to Israel within the next year.

Ethiopia’s last remaining Jewish community, the Falash Mura trace their roots to the biblical King Solomon.

But they are not eligible to enter Israel under the Law of Return, which guarantees a place in the country for every Jew, because they have largely been unable to prove they are Jewish.

Ethiopian Jews who kept their faith throughout centuries of adversity were flown to Israel by the thousands in the 1980s and early 1990s.

The last mass immigration was in 1991, when Israel organised a dramatic airlift of 15,000 people who had fled fighting at the end of Ethiopia’s civil war.

Correspondents say Ethiopian immigrants remain one of the poorest sections of Israeli society.

Israel receives ‘last Ethiopians’

The Falash Mura have had trouble proving their Jewish origins

Israel says it has carried out its last major airlift of Ethiopian Jews, ending a 30-year immigration scheme that has seen some 100,000 move there.

The Jewish Agency, which manages immigration to Israel, said the 65 flown from Addis Ababa were the last eligible under a quota imposed in 2003.

But campaigners said thousands more Ethiopians of Jewish descent, known as the Falash Mura, should be admitted.

The Falash Mura were forced to convert to Christianity in the 19th Century.

Ethiopia’s last remaining Jewish community, the Falash Mura trace their roots to the biblical King Solomon.

But they are not eligible to enter Israel under the Law of Return, which guarantees a place in the country for every Jew, because they have largely been unable to prove they are Jewish.

Ethiopian Jews who kept their faith throughout centuries of adversity were flown to Israel by the thousands in the 1980s and early 1990s.

The last mass immigration was in 1991, when Israel organised a dramatic airlift of 15,000 people who had fled fighting at the end of Ethiopia’s civil war.

Correspondents say Ethiopian immigrants remain one of the poorest sections of Israeli society.

With its subsidiaries Brussels Airlines and Swiss Air, Lufthansa competition KLM-Air France
© Sipa

Lufthansa, British Airways, Emirates Airlines and South African companies are expanding their réseauau detriment of the Franco-Dutch.

Not the African sky has aroused much envy. One of the few air spaces to be resilient to the crisis, but also offers growth prospects most interesting in the coming years (6% per year, against 3.6% for Europe and 2.7 % for the United States), became the scene of fierce competition among Western majors. Carriers who use all strategies to gain market share abroad, particularly in Africa.

After having reigned in the skies of the continent, the Franco-Dutch Air France-KLM is facing the rise of rivals Germany, the UK or U.S.. Mid-November, Deutsche Lufthansa AG, which groups together Lufthansa, Brussels Airlines and Swiss Air, has announced its building in Africa, specifically in West Africa and Central Africa through enhanced synergy between its three companies . It is this ambition which has also prompted its acquisition last summer, the Belgian airline SN Brussels Airlines, for some 250 million dollars. In total, the German group is now operational on a thirty destinations in Africa, either as Air France-KLM. If it has an edge in terms of frequency, Lufthansa should catch up next year. The German even considered to offer flights to Africa from Paris, via Frankfurt, Zurich and Brussels. “We want to offer our passengers out of the France an African network offering more choice and flexibility,” says Nicolas Sutter, spokesman for Lufthansa.

Merger with Iberia

Besides the German, British Airways, already present in twenty destinations in Africa, has signed with Spain’s Iberia (seven African destinations) a merger agreement in which the UK is in the majority up to 55%. This alliance, which gives rise to the third largest European carrier by passenger numbers, it will count as one of the tenors who operate in the African sky.

What worry Air France-KLM, which takes a little over 14% of its turnover in Africa. “Of course we fear losing market share with all these comparisons. But we intend to preserve and even improve, “explains Etienne Rachou, general manager Africa and Middle East of the Franco-Dutch. But the task is very arduous. Especially that Air France-KLM would also defend his leadership in responding to companies from the Middle East, including Emirates Airlines, which is also developing on the continent. It opened in October, in addition to its links with Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria, a service of Luanda (Angola) and in November signed an agreement of strategic partnership, technical and trade with Senegal Airlines, new company to start operations in 2010.

Winning back customers

And that’s not all, complete Etienne Rachou, “the African carriers like Royal Air Morocco, Ethiopian Airlines, Kenya Airways, Afriqiyah … are becoming more aggressive on the North-South routes they offer from Paris via their respective hubs.

Faced with this ever-growing competition, including placing the group on his seniority and his “knowledge” of the market. “It is the product,” says Etienne Rachou, who will make the difference. “Starting next year, Air France-KLM plans to offer all its flights on his concept” Comfort Economy “economy class that offers improved comfort and space travel. Objective: To attract customers who have deserted the business and first class company. Since February 2010, Air France-KLM will be the first to fly the very widebody Airbus A380 in Africa, between Paris and Johannesburg, which it wishes to make a key destination. But again, Air France-KLM will have to reckon with competition from Lufthansa, which also complement its African fleet with the A380 from next summer. The destinations will be announced in early 2010.

Air France-KLM, un leadership contesté

Avec ses filiales Brussels Airlines et Swiss Air, Lufthansa concurrence Air France-KLMAvec ses filiales Brussels Airlines et Swiss Air, Lufthansa concurrence Air France-KLM
© Sipa

Lufthansa, British Airways, Emirates Airlines et des compagnies africaines étendent leurs réseauau détriment du groupe franco-néerlandais.

Jamais le ciel africain n’a suscité autant de convoitises. L’un des rares espaces aériens à bien résister à la crise, mais aussi celui qui offre les perspectives de croissance les plus intéressantes au cours des prochaines années (6 % par an, contre 3,6 % pour l’Europe et 2,7 % pour les États-Unis), est devenu le théâtre d’une concurrence féroce entre les grandes compagnies occidentales. Des transporteurs qui usent de toutes les stratégies pour gagner des parts de marché à l’international, notamment en Afrique.

Après avoir régné dans le ciel du continent, le groupe franco-néerlandais Air France-KLM doit faire face à la montée en puissance de ses rivaux allemands, britanniques ou encore américains. Mi-novembre, Deutsche Lufthansa AG, qui regroupe en son sein Lufthansa, Brussels Airlines et Swiss Air, a annoncé son renforcement en Afrique, précisément en Afrique de l’Ouest et en Afrique centrale, grâce à une synergie plus accrue entre ses trois compagnies. C’est cette ambition qui a d’ailleurs motivé son acquisition, l’été dernier, de la compagnie belge Brussels Airlines, pour quelque 250 millions de dollars. Au total, le groupe allemand est désormais opérationnel sur une trentaine de destinations en Afrique, soit autant qu’Air France-KLM. Si ce dernier dispose d’une longueur d’avance en termes de fréquences, Lufthansa devrait rattraper ce retard dès l’an prochain. L’Allemand envisage même de proposer des vols vers l’Afrique au départ de Paris, en passant par Francfort, Zurich ou Bruxelles. « Nous voulons offrir à nos passagers au départ de la France un réseau africain proposant encore plus de choix et de flexibilité », affirme Nicolas Sutter, porte-parole de Lufthansa.

Fusion avec Iberia

Outre le groupe allemand, British Airways, déjà présent sur une ­vingtaine de destinations en Afrique, vient de conclure avec l’espagnol Iberia (sept destinations africaines) un accord de fusion dans lequel le britannique est majoritaire à hauteur de 55 %. Cette alliance, qui donne naissance au ­troisième plus grand transporteur européen en nombre de passagers, comptera elle aussi parmi les ténors qui opéreront dans le ciel africain.

De quoi inquiéter Air France-KLM, qui tire un peu plus de 14 % de son ­chiffre d’affaires en Afrique. « Bien sûr que nous pouvons craindre de ­perdre des parts de marché avec tous ces rapprochements. Mais nous comptons les préserver et même les améliorer », explique Étienne Rachou, le directeur général Afrique et Moyen-Orient du groupe franco-néerlandais. Mais la tâche sera très ardue. D’autant plus qu’Air France-KLM devrait également défendre son leadership face aux compagnies venant du Moyen-Orient, notamment Emirates Airlines, qui se développe aussi sur le continent. Elle a ouvert en octobre, en plus de ses liaisons avec la Côte d’Ivoire, le Ghana et le Nigeria, une desserte de Luanda (Angola) et a signé en ­novembre un accord de partenariat stratégique, technique et commercial avec Sénégal Airlines, la nouvelle compagnie qui doit démarrer ses activités en 2010.

Reconquérir les clients

Et ce n’est pas tout, complète Étienne Rachou, « les transporteurs africains comme Royal Air Maroc, Ethiopian Airlines, Kenya Airways, Afriqiyah… sont de plus en plus agressifs sur les liaisons Nord-Sud, qu’ils proposent au départ de Paris via leurs hubs respectifs ».

Face à cette concurrence sans cesse grandissante, le groupe mise notamment sur son ancienneté et sa « bonne connaissance » du marché. « C’est le produit, affirme Étienne Rachou, qui fera la différence. » Dès l’année prochaine, Air France-KLM envisage de proposer sur tous ses vols son concept « Economy Comfort », la classe ­économique améliorée qui offre plus de confort et d’espace aux voyageurs. Objectif : attirer les clients qui ont déserté les classes affaires et première de la compagnie. Dès février 2010, Air France-KLM sera la première à faire voler le très gros-porteur A380 d’Airbus en Afrique, entre Paris et Johannesburg, dont elle souhaite faire une destination clé. Mais là aussi, Air France-KLM devra compter avec la concurrence de Lufthansa, qui complétera elle aussi sa flotte africaine par l’A380 à partir de l’été prochain. Les destinations desservies seront connues début 2010.

Air France-KLM, ein Wettstreit um die Führungsrolle

Mit ihren Tochtergesellschaften Brussels Airlines und Swiss Air, Lufthansa Wettbewerb KLM-Air France
© Sipa

Lufthansa, British Airways, Emirates Airlines und südafrikanischen Firmen bauen ihre réseauau Nachteil des französisch-niederländisch.

Nicht der afrikanischen Himmel hat viel Neid hervorgerufen. Einer der wenigen Lufträume werden widerstandsfähiger gegen die Krise, sondern bietet auch die interessantesten Wachstumsperspektiven in den kommenden Jahren (6% pro Jahr, gegenüber 3,6% für Europa und 2,7 % für die Vereinigten Staaten), wurde der Schauplatz des harten Wettbewerbs unter den westlichen Majors. Träger, die alle Strategien nutzen, um Marktanteile im Ausland zu sammeln, insbesondere in Afrika.

Nachdem herrschte in den Himmel des Kontinents, ist die französisch-niederländische Air France-KLM mit Blick auf den Anstieg des Rivalen Deutschland, Großbritannien oder den USA. Mitte November, Deutsche Lufthansa AG, die Gruppen zusammen Lufthansa hat Brussels Airlines und Swiss Air, ihre Gebäude in Afrika, speziell in West-Afrika und Zentral-Afrika bekannt, durch eine größere Synergie zwischen den drei Unternehmen . Es ist dieses Bestreben, die auch die Akquisition im vergangenen Sommer dazu aufgefordert hat, die belgische Fluggesellschaft SN Brussels Airlines, für rund 250 Millionen Dollar. Insgesamt ist die deutsche Gruppe nun in Betrieb auf einem dreißig Destinationen in Afrika, entweder als Air France-KLM. Wenn es eine Kante hat in Bezug auf Frequenz, sollte Lufthansa fangen im nächsten Jahr. Die deutsche als auch für Flüge von Paris nach Afrika zu bieten, über Frankfurt, Zürich und Brüssel. “Wir wollen unseren Fahrgästen aus dem Frankreich eine afrikanische Netzwerk bietet mehr Auswahl und Flexibilität”, sagt Nicolas Sutter, Sprecher der Lufthansa.

Fusion mit Iberia

Neben dem deutschen hat British Airways, die bereits in zwanzig Destinationen in Afrika, mit Iberia in Spanien (sieben Destinationen in Afrika) einen Fusionsvertrag in das Vereinigte Königreich ist in den meisten bis zu 55% abgeschlossen. Diese Allianz, die zu der drittgrößte europäische Fluggesellschaft durch die Zahl der Fluggäste gibt, zählt als einer der Tenöre, die in den afrikanischen Himmel zu betreiben.

Was Sorgen Air France-KLM, die ein wenig mehr als 14% ihres Umsatzes in Afrika stattfindet. “Natürlich haben wir Angst vor Verlust von Marktanteilen bei all diesen Vergleichen. Aber wollen wir erhalten und sogar zu verbessern “, erklärt Etienne Rachou, General Manager Afrika und Mittlerer Osten der französisch-niederländisch. Aber die Aufgabe ist sehr anstrengend. Vor allem, dass Air France-KLM wäre auch zu verteidigen seiner Führung bei der Reaktion auf Unternehmen aus dem Nahen Osten, einschließlich der Emirates Airlines, die auch die Entwicklung auf dem Kontinent. Es wurde im Oktober zusätzlich zu seiner Verbindungen mit der Republik Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana und Nigeria, ein Service von Luanda (Angola) und im November eine Vereinbarung unterzeichnet, der strategischen Partnerschaft, Technik und Handel mit Senegal Airlines, neue Unternehmen den Betrieb beginnt 2010.

Winning Kunden zurückgewinnen

Und das ist nicht alles, komplett Etienne Rachou “, die afrikanische Carrier wie Royal Air Marokko, Ethiopian Airlines, Kenya Airways, Afriqiyah … werden immer aggressiver auf der Nord-Süd-Routen bieten sie aus Paris über ihre jeweiligen Hubs.

Angesichts dieser ständig wachsenden Wettbewerb, ua durch die Gruppe seines Dienstalters und sein “Wissen” des Marktes. “Es ist das Produkt ist”, sagt Etienne Rachou, die den Unterschied machen wird. “Ab dem nächsten Jahr will Air France-KLM auf allen Flügen über seinen Begriff” Komfort Economy “Economy-Class-Komfort, dass verbesserte Angebote bieten und Raumfahrt. Ziel: Gewinnung von Kunden, die Business und First Class Unternehmen verlassen zu haben. Seit Februar 2010, Air France-KLM werden die ersten bis zum Großraum-Airbus A380 in Afrika zu fliegen, zwischen Paris und Johannesburg, in dem es sich an ein zentrales Ziel zu machen. Aber noch einmal, Air France-KLM muss mit Konkurrenz von Lufthansa, auch als Ergänzung zu ihren afrikanischen Flotte mit der A380 ab dem kommenden Sommer zu rechnen. Die Ziele werden Anfang 2010 bekannt gegeben.

africa_between_world_wars_01africa_between_world_wars_02

African Soldiers in Action
“…people, especially the youth are no more satisfied with the old order, which admits of little or no progressive adjustments as time goes on.”
Editorial in The Comet, edited by Nnamdi Azikwe, 24 Dec 1936.

The period between the world wars was a time of intense political and intellectual change for people in Africa. For Europeans, it was a time of consolidation, during which they tried to build up a more effective colonial administration. The urban population in Africa began to call for more say in how things were run. To make their voices heard new movements and associations were formed. But the political activity engendered by World War One had no sooner built up momentum than a second world war was on the horizon.africa_between_world_wars_03

The people of Africa put aside their grievances and once more made a crucial military contribution. When the war ended, people felt that having fought for freedom in Europe, they were entitled to it for themselves.

When India gained independence in 1947, the movement towards self-rule became unstoppable. In a space of over 70 years, Britain and France had built up and dismantled the huge machine of colonial rule. Imperialism was a fleeting episode in African history, but one which left an indelible mark on the continent, both economically and socially.

Listen HereListen to Life under Colonialism, the twentieth programme in the BBC landmark radio series The Story of Africa, presented by Hugh Quarshie

World War 1: Recruitment

SUPPORT FOR THE WAR EFFORT

Many people in Africa had only the vaguest understanding of what the First World War was about. Certainly the reasons for it were not easy to understand. It was triggered by the assassination of Arch Duke Ferdinand of Serbia, and in Europe, people thought it would be all over by Christmas of 1914.africa_between_world_wars_04

Without the cooperation of local leaders and chiefs, European powers would not have been able to raise the troops and carriers they needed, and some chiefs were very willing to help.

“This is one of the most important services that I have done for the peace of the protecting government and for the peace of the whole world.

A war against Britain was a war against Buganda, and so, when I was appointed to lead some soldiers, I at once left for Kampala with 5,000 men. There I was told not to go to the battlefield at once, but to wait in my country and do as I was directed. While waiting, these are some of the things I did:
(a) I did all I could to recruit men for the armies.
(b) I sent in a lot of carriers.
(c) I very much encouraged the growing of food…
(d) I encouraged further the growing of cotton…
(e) Because I very much wanted peace I tried my best to get into contact with the British armies for I did not want the enemy to get to our city London.”
TheRecord of My Service by Buganda chief Samwiri Mukasa.

In Nigeria, there was a general rallying round among urban educated Nigerians. Speeches were made and money collected.

“Our kith and kin have gone to fight in our stead, and it is only right that we should give them all the support necessary… Ingratitude is the greatest reproach that could be flung at a native, and I therefore urge upon all to contribute their quota to this national fund so that it might not be said we are ungrateful to the British Government for many benefits conferred.”
Dr. Obasa, described in West Africa magazine as the “well-known Lagos public man,” speaking at a meeting of chiefs at Glover Memorial Hall, Lagos.

RECRUITMENT
People were recruited in a number of ways. One was through a direct appeal for volunteers. This happened first in Egypt, where peasants were attracted by the wages offered.

Another was recruitment through chiefs. The British enlisted the help of chiefs and left them to find the men however they could. Although officially nobody was supposed to be forced into signing up, inevitably they were.

“We came back one night from our yam farm. The chief called us and handed us over to a government messenger. I didn’t know where we were going, but the chief and the messenger said that the white man had sent for us and we must go. After three days we reached the white man’s compound.

Plenty of others had arrived from other villages far away. And the white man wrote our names in a book. And tied a brass numbered ticket round our necks and gave each man a blanket and food.

Then he told us we were going to the Great War to help the king’s soldiers who were preventing the Germans coming to our country and burning it. We left and marched far into the bush. The government police led the way and allowed no man to stop behind.”
A first hand account of what it was like to be recruited. As told by No.1475, a carrier who was recruited in 1914. Quoted in The African Contribution to the Second World War.

There was also forced recruitment. This happened under the British in northern Rhodesia. In the Congo, the Belgians forced 260,000 men to be porters carrying soldiers, equipment and provisions.

Listen hereListen to a porter as he recalls being sent to the war

CONSCRIPTION
Men were also conscripted. In 1912, the French set about creating a permanent black army. There was compulsory military service for all African males. After the outbreak of the war, 14,785 troops were signed up in West Africa. Then in 1915-16, 50,000 more were recruited through chiefs.

African troops under French command were combatant. The ‘tirailleurs’ in charge of artillery, with their distinctive red fezes, were famous. In 1918, Blaise Diagne, the Senegalese politician and the first African Deputy in the French Chamber of Deputies, was appointed High Commissioner of Recruitment of black troops.

In East Africa, the British instituted a compulsory service order in 1915 covering all males aged 18-45. This was extended to the Uganda Protectorate in April 1917.

The First World War: In Action

The First World War gave rise to a crucial change in the relationship between Europe and Africa. Over two million people in Africa made huge sacrifices for the European Allies. 100,000 men died in East Africa and 65,000 men from French North Africa and French West Africa lost their lives.africa_between_world_wars_05

Not since the American War of Independence, when 14,000 slaves and freemen fought as black loyalists alongside the British, had such a huge number of people of African descent been involved in fighting for Europeans. Very few were combatant, most of them were used as porters. They were recruited to carry heavy weapons and supplies. They were badly paid and given food which was either of poor quality or entirely foreign to them. While travelling through new territories for them, they often fell sick and were affected by different types of malaria.

THEATRES OF WAR

On the continent of Africa, there was action along the coast. In the West and South the Allies attacked Germany’s African ports. They attacked Lome (in Togo), Douala (in Cameroun), Swakopmund and Luderitz Bay (in South West Africa).

In the East, German-held Dar Es Salaam was bombarded. In the North, the main concern of the British was to safeguard the Suez Canal.

German South West Africa was brought under allied control in the first few months. Cameroon took longer to capture. The East Africa campaign took even longer, with the Germans led by brilliant German General von Lettow-Vorbeck. African troops from French West Africa saw action in Western Europe, but the British never took African soldiers out of the continent.

MUTINIES AND UPRISINGS

Where there were political tensions and frustrations the war only made them worse. In Nysaland (now modern Malawi), the American-trained missionary John Chilembwe led an uprising. It was religious as well as anti-colonial in character. Importantly, it was triggered by the high level of forced military recruitment of Nysas, many of whom were subsequently killed in large numbers in the first few weeks of fighting.

Further south, a number of Afrikaners, sympathetic to Germany and hostile to the Allies, tried to raise an armed rebellion. This was put down by the British educated Afrikaner leader General Smuts, who went on to play a key military role against the Germans in the First World War and in the settlement afterwards.

In the Niger Delta, Farrick Braide, also known as Elijah II, preached that the beginning of the First World War marked the end of British rule.

In Kenya, the Mumbo cult rejected Christianity and predicted Europeans would disappear from the African continent. Resistance to taxation also continued throughout the war, as in Yorubaland where there were riots in 1916.

The Aftermath

The war had demanded huge sacrifices of people in Africa, intertwining the fate of Africa and Europe more intimately. The idea grew on the part of Europe of obligations to Africa, but not liberation and equality.

An increasing number of Africans reasoned that a war in which Europeans slaughtered fellow Europeans, meant that colonial regimes had little right to lecture African leaders and people about how to conduct their affairs.

The savage effects of the war were compounded by a world wide influenza pandemic in 1918-1919. It is estimated that two percent of the population in Africa fell victim to the spread of this dangerous type of influenza and died.africa_between_world_wars_06

THE PEACE SETTLEMENTS

In 1919, the Versailles peace Conference was convened to provide for a lasting peace in Europe and punish Germany. African nationalists saw this as an opportunity for their grievances to be heard.

However India was the only country allowed to send delegates. Others were turned away. For example, Liberia was not allowed to attend. Members of the ANC (known then as the South African Natives Congress), and the Egyptian nationalist, Sa’ad Zaghlul, wanted to attend Versailles along with Egypt’s Prime Minister Husayn Rushdi. Sierra Leoneans also felt their demands should be taken into account.

Instead the European powers divided up Germany’s African colonies without consulting anyone in Africa, and without any attention being paid to the geographical spread of different ethnic groups.

“After Africa’s sons had shed their blood on the altar of liberty and after having experienced that terrible plague called the influenza epidemic, are we not the same manna loving people?

The South African Natives Congress has decided to send a delegation to England to place before the Imperial authorities the disabilities of which the coloured people complain. Liberia has asked for a place in the Peace Conference. What is Sierra Leone doing? We have been sleeping too long. It is high time we take up the world’s cry and work – reconstruction!”
Sierra Leone Weekly News, 8 March 1918.

EFFECTS OF THE WAR IN AFRICA

Although some railways were built for military reasons, the First World War generally had a negative effect on trade and development. Many major public works projects such as buildings and the construction of roads were postponed.

Within Africa, the price of commodities went up. However, in the case of cotton grown in Egypt, the increase was not passed onto the growers.

All negotiations ceased with Germany, which had been a big trading partner to many colonies. Sierra Leone’s trade had been 80 per cent dependent on Germany. In Calabar, on the Coast of Nigeria, there were shortages of milk, sugar and salt, causing panic hoarding.

As large numbers of Europeans went off to fight, more Africans moved into key positions. This was particularly true in French West Africa where jobs previously held only by Europeans, were now held by Africans. But when Europeans came home Africans were again demoted.

In Britain the demobbing of black seamen and service men resulted in bitter competition for jobs. In 1919 racist mobs caused riots and waves of vicious anti-black feeling in Liverpool, Cardiff and London. Many seamen were simply signed off from work to make way for demobbed white soldiers. The Trinidadian Felix Eugene Michael Hercules voiced the bitterness suffered by people from the Caribbean as well as Africa.

“He (Caribbean and African man) fought with the white man to save the white man’s home…and the war was won… Black men all the world over are asking to-day: “What have we got? What are we going to get out of it all?

The answer, in effect, comes clear, convincing and conclusive: ‘Get back to your kennel you damned dog of a nigger.”

Felix Eugene Michael Hercules, quoted by Peter Fryer in his book Staying Power.

The shabby treatment of African and Caribbean people in Britain prompted a large number to return home, disaffected, but also politicised and radicalised. There was a growing sense of solidarity among people of African descent in America, the Caribbean as well as Africa, and the black Diaspora took political expression in a number of Pan African Congresses.

Emperor Haile Selassie
Early Nationalism

The period between the World Wars saw a huge increase in political activity in Africa, much of it led by the younger generation.africa_between_world_wars_07

In 1919 in Egypt, demonstrations and strikes were followed by the arrest of the nationalist leader Sa’ad Zaghul. Three years later, the British gave into the strength of nationalist feeling and after some considerable tension granted Egypt independence. Elsewhere there were strikes in different parts of the continent.

LABOUR UNREST IN THE CONTINENT
SUDAN
“Tramwaymen On Strike.
There was a lightening strike of tramway men this morning and many official and businessmen were obliged to use other means of transport…This appears to be the first strike of its nature in Sudan and it is all the more regrettable as the tramwaymen seem to have no legitimate grounds for striking.”
British-owned Sudan Daily Herald, 19 Dec 1936.

NIGERIA
“Strikes Of Inspectors Threatened – Alleged Maltreatment.
Streams of sanitary inspectors were seen early this morning moving to and fro with evident signs of dissatisfaction on their faces. One of their main grievances is reported to be the placing of an untrained and illiterate sanitary inspector to supervise their work…A petition has been addressed to the Senior Resident of the Province. ”
Nigeria Daily Times, 2 Dec 1936.

SOUTH AFRICA
“Strike At Krugersdorf.
Thirty nine natives on shaft sinking contracts at East Champs d’Or, Krugersdorf, refused to start work and tried to prevent others working…they wanted higher pay, although they had signed up to contract.”
Rand Daily Mail, 5 Dec 1936.

Political organisations sprung up, often regional in outlook and driven by a determination to have more control in the running of the colonies. One of the most important of these was the National Congress of British West Africa, the NCBWA.

In East Africa, Jomo Kenyatta was already in the 1930’s emerging as an immensely articulate and convinced anti-colonialist.

“The African is conditioned, by the cultural and social institutions of centuries, to a freedom of which Europe has little conception, and it is not in his nature to accept serfdom for ever.

He realises that he must fight unceasingly for his own complete emancipation; for without this he is doomed to remain the prey of rival imperialisms, which in every successive year will drive their fangs more deeply into his vitality and strength.”
Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya.

AMBITIONS

While mining, plantation agriculture and road construction created a wage earning labouring class, the educated, professional classes also expanded. Some went to Europe and America to get further education. The number of doctors and lawyers, although small, increased steadily.

A number of professional and welfare associations were formed, firstly among civil servants and teachers. Cocoa traders also formed their own associations. All these people were ambitious for their children and increasingly insistent that they themselves should be paid the same and treated the same as their European peers.

AFRICANS FOR EUROPEANS
“It is the policy to appoint Africans to take the place of Europeans, but the real point of disagreement is as to the rate this process should proceed. The government feels this process is too fast. The people, that it is too slow.”
Sierra Leone Daily Mail, 3 Dec 1936.

AFRICAN LABELS
“…exception was taken to the prefixing of the term ‘African’ to high appointments held by coloured civil servants. ‘African’ before Assistant Colonial Secretary, Assistant Colonial Treasurer, Assistant Storekeeper, and Assistant Director of Education is no less a cheapening of the status of the black office holder, than it is an abuse of adjectival function. Even if white subheads of department became officially known as ‘European Assistants’ thereby leaving no ground for imagining any slight to African subheads, still the offense against standard English would be regrettable.”
Sierra Leone Weekly News, 26 Dec 1936.

The range of skilled labour changed. Leather and metal working went into decline, but bicycle repairing and car maintenance increased. The importation of the sewing machine created a huge class of tailors all over the continent. In terms of leisure and fashion, European clothes, films and music were popular. In West Africa, the middle class took what interested them from Western culture and mixed it with African fashion and custom.

FRENCH SPEAKING AFRICA
Political movements in French-speaking Africa tended to ally themselves with radical movements. This was the case in Paris. For example, in 1924 the Ligue Universelle pour la Defense de la Race Noire was founded by Dahomean lawyer Prince Kojo Tovalou Houeou. The Comite de la Defense de la Race Negre, under the leadership of Tiemoho Garan-Kouyate, followed.

In Senegal the principle figure championing the rights of Africans was Blaise Diagne who was elected to the French Chamber of Deputies in 1914. Later he ws criticised for serving the interests of the French at the expense of the Africans.

In Dahomey, Louis Hankerin was a key political figure during the early twenties when prices for palm kernels were low and taxes were high. Hankerin wrote in the American as well as French press and set up local branches of the Ligne des Droits de L’Homme and the Comite de la Defense de la Race Negre.

THE PEOPLE AND THE KINGS
The European colonial rulers and their officials were not the only group opposed by the new political movement. In some areas there was considerable dissatisfaction with African rulers.

For example, in Basotholand (modern Lesotho) a Council of Commoners was formed in 1919, influenced by the South African Communist Party. It criticised the chiefs for driving round in big cars and taxing the people.

In Uganda, The Young Baganda Association turned against the Baganda Kabaka (king) and chiefs, accusing them of being disorganised and immoral. Three of its leading lights were imprisoned in 1922 for publishing an attack against the king.

In the case of Ethiopia, the Italian invasion in 1935 only served to strengthen the people’s loyalty to Emperor Haile Selassie. Unable to resist the Italians, he was forced into exile in 1936. The case of Ethiopia or Abyssinia, as it was then known, provoked a great deal of sympathy.

“Abyssinia Relief Fund (Ondo Branch)
Public meeting convened by the Rev. Canon M.C. Adeyemi, the Rev. T.O. Dedeke, and the Chief Seriki Akinrosotu…
“…the chief object of the meeting…was to discuss ways and means of assisting our brothers and sisters who were suffering as a result of the aggressive war waged on them by the Italians…Mr. D.L. Akinola gave a good lead by paying at once into the fund…on the whole, the meeting was very successful.”
Daily Times of Nigeria, 5 Dec 1936.
The Pan-African Vision

In Africa, there was a general assumption on the part of colonial powers that Africans must wait patiently for limited political concessions and better career opportunities. Ex-servicemen and the educated urban classes became disillusioned and were only too willing to listen to socialist ideas based on concepts of equality and a new world order.

In London, the Socialist Club attracted a wide audience of people who felt marginalised – Africans, Irish Nationalists and German Jews. Drury Lane was the site of a club exclusively for black soldiers.

“They had been disillusioned with the European war, because they kept on having frightful clashes with English and American soldiers, besides the fact that the authorities treated them completely differently from the white soldiers…

I was working at that time in London in a communist group. Our group provided the club of Negro soldiers with revolutionary newspapers and literature, which had nothing.”
Letter from Jamaican writer and socialist, Claude McKay to Trotsky in 1922.

1919 – THE FIRST PAN AFRICAN CONGRESS
Racist treatment reinforced a sense of solidarity within the Diaspora. This found expression in a series of Pan-African meetings. In 1909 the first Pan African Conference was held. In 1919 the first of five Pan-African Congresses was held. This was organised by the African American thinker and journalist, W.E.B. DuBois. Fifty seven delegates attended representing fifteen countries. Its principal task was petitioning the Versailles Peace Conference, then meeting in Paris. Among its demands were:

a) The Allies administer the former German territories in Africa as a condominium on behalf of the Africans who lived there.
b) Africans should take part in governing their countries “as fast as their development permits” until, at some unspecified time in the future, Africa is granted home rule.

1921 – THE SECOND PAN AFRICAN CONGRESS
This congress met in several sessions in London, Paris and Brussels. The Indian revolutionary Shapuiji Saklaatvala was introduced. The Ghanaian journalist W.F. Hutchinson spoke. This Congress was considered by some to be the most radical of all the meetings. The London session resulted in the Declaration To The World, also called the London Manifesto.

“England, with all her Pax Britannica, her courts of justice, established commerce, and a certain apparent recognition of Native laws and customs, has nevertheless systematically fostered ignorance among the Natives, has enslaved them, and is still enslaving them, has usually declined even to try to train black and brown men in real self-government, to recognise civilised black folk as civilised, or to grant to coloured colonies those rights of self government which it freely gives to white men.”
The London Manifesto.

The one dissenting voice was that of Blaise Diagne who, although African, was effectively a French politician, representing Senegal in the French Chamber of Deputies. He thought the declaration dangerously extreme and soon abandoned the idea of Pan Africanism.

1923 – THE THIRD PAN AFRICAN CONGRESS
This congress was held in London and Lisbon. Badly organised, it was also not very well attended. But it repeated the demand for some form of self-rule, defining the relationship between Africa and Europe, as well as mentioning the problems of the Diaspora in a number of ways:

a) the development of Africa for the benefit of Africans and not merely for the profit of Europeans.
b) home rule and responsible government for British West Africa and the British West Indies.
c) the abolition of the pretension of a white minority to dominate a black majority in Kenya, Rhodesia and South Africa.
d) the suppression of lynching and mob law in US.

1927 – THE FOURTH PAN AFRICAN CONGRESS
This was held in New York and adopted similar resolutions to those in the 3rd Pan African Congress.

1945 – THE FIFTH PAN AFRICAN CONGRESS
This was held in Manchester in the north west of England. There were ninety delegates, twenty six from all over Africa. These included Peter Abrahams for the ANC, and a number of men who were to become political leaders in their countries, such as Hastings Banda, Nkrumah, Obafemi Awolowo and Kenyatta. There was also Marcus Garvey’s wife and Trinidadian radical George Padmore.

There were thirty three delegates from the West Indies and thirty five from various British organisations including the West African Students Union. W.E.B. DuBois, the man who had organised the first Pan African Congress back in 1919, was there too at the age of 77.

Despite the turnout, this conference scarcely got a mention in British press. There were many resolutions passed, including one calling for racial discrimination to be made a criminal offense. The main resolution decried imperialism and capitalism:

Listen to Marcus Grant, Sierra Leone radical, member of the West African Youth League speaking about George Padmore

“We are unwilling to starve any longer while doing the world’s drudgery, in order to support, by our poverty and ignorance, a false aristocracy and a discredited imperialism.

We condemn the monopoly of capital and the rule of private wealth and industry for private profit alone…

We shall complain, appeal and arraign. We will make the world listen to the facts of our condition. We will fight in every way we can for freedom, democracy and social betterment.”

Listen to a 1934 excerpt of the Negro Worker on how the British Empire was built on slavery and opium smuggling

Socialism

PEOPLE POWER
The frustrations of Africans in the face of colonialism did not escape the attention of the very recently emerged Soviet Union. It had come into being in 1917 when there was still a year more of The First World War to go.africa_between_world_wars_08

The Russian Revolution had swept through Imperial Russia toppling the Emperor and ruling class. The leader of the revolution, Lenin, was convinced by Karl Marx’s theory that capitalism would collapse and give way to a socialist society run by the workers, with no exploitation and equality for all.

MARXIST THEORY IN AFRICA
It was difficult applying Marxist theory to Africa. With the exception of South Africa and North Africa, the continent was largely rural, with no large-scale industry. There was trade but it did not amount to capitalism. There was scarcely any banking system and no significant urban working class. But there was colonialism and imperialism, both of which Lenin, and his successor Stalin regarded as evidence of European capitalism in its death throes. So Africa was included in the Marxist Leninist vision.

“Not only the vegetable and mineral rich materials of the colonies are essential to the imperialists. They also need compliant human material, and there’s no shortage of that in the colonial and semi-colonial territories. They need obedient and cheap workers…the dutiful young lads who make up the recruits for the so called ‘coloured forces’. And these the imperialists throw into action against their very own revolutionary workers without any hesitation. This is why they call their colonies the ‘inexhaustible reserve.’”
Joseph Stalin, The Strategic Importance of the Colonies.

Listen to a dramatised reading of the above

EARLY COMMUNISM IN AFRICAbr>
By the 1920’s Africa’s first Communist Parties were established in Egypt and South Africa respectively. The Communist Party of South Africa was formed in 1921. Initially it only had white members. By 1928, the majority of its members were black. In 1927, the ANC President J.J. Gumede visited the Soviet Union. Three communists, J.B. Marks, E. Mofutsanyana and Moses Kotane went to Moscow in 1932. By this time, Stalin was in power in the Soviet Union.

The Trinidian revolutionary, George Padmore, was editing the Negro Worker, a publication, inciting people of African origin to throw off colonial rule. He distributed the publication throughout the black Diaspora by merchant seamen. Padmore broke with Moscow in 1934 and later became a close friend and mentor to Kwame Nkrumah.

“The Negro Worker takes pride in the fact that despite all obstacles, the message is penetrating the slave pens of British Imperialism and is causing discomfort to the exploiters.

We can assure the gallant and noble colonial secretary and his ilk that we shall leave no stone unturned to break through the barriers erected and carry to the native toilers the message of revolutionary struggle as the only way out of the barbarous slave exploitation and national oppression to which they are subjected by the British ruling class.”
Editorial, The Negro Worker, Sept 1934.

WEST AFRICANS AND SOCIALIST IDEAS
Meanwhile in America, a young Ghanaian student Bankole Awoonor-Renner first came across socialist thought, when he attended a Negro Workers’ Conference in 1925, which was supported by the Communist party in the Soviet Union. Another point of contact was made by the Sierra Leonean radical Ita Wallace Johnson, who went to study in Moscow. There he met George Padmore.

SOVIET SUPPORT FOR NATIONALISM
With the end of the Second World War the Soviet Union moved from being a key ally in the war, to being in opposition to the western powers. Large parts of Eastern Europe had fallen under the Soviet army and now they remained under Soviet control, including half of Germany. The Soviet Union, while it had few historical connections with Africa, increasingly offered support and encouragement to African nationalists, whenever they met with indifference or persecution from the colonial powers.

Listen to Zinoviev, Soviet Central Committee member, waging a war against capitalist nations at the Baku Congress

Newspapers

EARLY NEWSPAPERS
The first English newspaper on the continent of Africa was published in Cape Town in 1800. The following year in Sierra Leone The Royal Gazette and Sierra Leone Advertiser was published in Freetown. Both were European undertakings concerned with matters of government.africa_between_world_wars_09

In 1826 Charles Force, an American freed slave, published the Liberia Herald. He died some months later, but the title was revived in 1830 by Edward Blyden, the anti-colonial thinker and academic, who moved from the Caribbean island of St. Thomas to Liberia. This marked the beginning of an African press which was critical of the European presence in Africa.

From the mid-19th century onwards a number of papers were published in Luanda, Angola, by a distinct group of educated, mixed race (mesticos) Angolans. Jose de Fontes Pereira and Joaquim Dias Cordeiro da Matta were regular contributors, writing articles highly critical of Portuguese rule.

WEST AFRICAN NEWSPAPERS
The first African produced paper in West Africa was Charles Bannerman’s Accra Herald, produced in 1858 in the Gold Coast (modern Ghana). The following year the first Yoruba newspaper was produced, Iwe Ihorin (‘The Paper with the News’) which cost 30 cowrie shells. In 1863 a West Indian immigrant called Professor Robert Campbell brought out the Anglo African.

“We were favoured with sight of the beautiful baptismal present our beloved Queen has made to the infant of Mrs. J.P. L. Davies of Lagos, a lady well known as having enjoyed the high honour of being a protégé of her majesty… The cup and salver are both inscribed as follows: To Victoria Davies Queen Victoria.”
Excerpt from the Anglo African newsletter, 3 Oct 1863, on the occasion of the birth of a baby born to the leading African trader J.P.L. Davies and his wife, who was goddaughter to the Queen.

In 1926 in Lagos, Nigeria’s most enduring and popular newspaper, The Nigeria Daily Times was published. Its editor, Ernest Ikoli, was also head of the renowned school, King’s College, Lagos, and considered an outstanding man in his day. The paper was published on a sound commercial basis, carrying a lot of expatriate advertising, but it could be critical of the colonial establishment:

“…the appointment of Mr. O Jibowu MA BCL Oxon as Police Magistrate in Lagos is no more than an experiment…It is astonishing that no African has been found qualified to be on the judicial staff in the newly constituted Protectorate Courts.”
Daily Times, 12 Dec 1936.

WEST AFRICA MAGAZINE
The West Africa magazine was published in London in 1917 with the commercial backing from Elder Dempster Shipping Line and John Holt trading company. Although published in London, its editor set out to publish a magazine that was an open forum for the discussion of all questions affecting the welfare of people – both African and European. There were contributions from colonial officials and expatriates, but also from the educated African urban elite, including Gold Coast nationalist Kobina Sekyi.

NATIVE OR FOREIGNER – WHICH ARE YOU?
“There’s many a difference quickly found
Between the different races
But the only essential differential
Is living in different place.
Yet such is the pride of the prideful man,
From Austrians to Australians
That wherever he is
He regards as his
And the natives as aliens.”
Published in Sierra Leone Weekly News, 19 Dec 1936.

The most dynamic and energetic West African journalist in the 1930’s was the nationalist Nnamdi Azikwe, later to be first President of Nigeria. He had been educated in America and strongly influenced by black radical journalism there. He established the African Morning Post with I.T.A. Wallace Johnson. They described it as “independent in all things and neutral in nothing affecting the destiny of Africa.”

In 1927 Azikwe established the West African Pilot in Lagos. Its lively mix of radical politics, gossip, plus a woman’s page proved very popular. The Comet was another popular Nigerian publication. Edited by a radical Egyptian, Duse Mohammed Ali, who had been educated in London. The Comet kept a keen eye on events at home and abroad.

“Sin-possessed and intoxicated with authority, Mussolini, the Fascist Dictator with his “smash and grab” doctrine of civilisation has announced his East African spoils to the world. He is also said to be having his hands in the Spanish mists. This is as should be expected of a child of darkness – he must always be found in the misty corners of the world.

There by him we find his brother Hitler, the German dictator, dreaming his usual daydreams – a German Empire, with Russia as his armrest; France as his footstool, England as his manufacturing nation, and the colonies as labourers to work in his Nazi vineyard. His continuous dream is of world subjugation…”
The Comet, 5 Dec 1936.

In French West Africa the press was dominated by French publishers. The first major African publication was La Voix du Dahomey in 1927. More papers followed in Ivory Coast and Senegal.

EAST AFRICA
Africans in East Africa were not as well served by the press as in West Africa. By the 1930’s the English speaking press was dominated by the Standard Group, whose titles included the East African Standard (originally The African Standard started by the Asian journalist A. M. Jeevanjee), The Mombasa Times, the Tanganyika Standard and the Uganda Argus.

The African run-press in East Africa took off in the 1920’s and 1930’s. One of the earliest known newspapers in an African language was Sekanyola, published in 1920, written in Luganda and aimed at the Baganda in Uganda and Kenya.

The Kampala suburb Katwe was known as the Fleet Street of Uganda; other Luganda titles included Gambuze which came out in 1927 and Dobzi Iya Buganda in 1928. The first Gikuyu paper was Muigwithania which was initially published in 1925 and was edited by the future President of Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta. He also sponsored other political publications in Gikuyu. The other notable Swahili title was Kwetu, edited by Muganda Eric Fiah.

SOUTH AFRICA
In South Africa, the first African edited paper was Isigidimi Sama Xhosa. It came out in 1876 with the backing of the Lovedale missionary press. One of its editors, John Tengo Jabavu, a devout Methodist and Pan Africanist, who was educated in Britain and America, then went on to publish and edit Imvo Zabantsundu in 1884. This was a bilingual paper with an English and Xhosa speaking readership.

In 1903, John L. Dube, later to be President of the ANC, published Ilanga Lase Natal. Once the ANC became established as the leading opponent to white rule, it voiced its concerns primarily through the publication Abantu Batho. It survived attempts to close it down by the authorities, but finally folded for financial reasons.

The fortunes of the African press in South Africa reflected the slow and uneven march towards segregation and the loss of rights experienced by black South Africans.

The main newspaper group to emerge in the 1930’s was The Argus Group. It saw profit in publishing titles for black as well as white readers. It bought up the Bantu Press, which had a number of successful titles read by black South Africans, and removed all the Africans employed in management. By World War II there were only three black owned and edited newspapers, two of which were published by the Communist Party of South Africa, including the Socialist Worker. During the years leading up to the Second World War all the newspapers – both European and African – keenly observed events in Europe and debated the implications for Africa. When the war was in progress the newspaper in English and French colonial Africa broadly supported the Allies – only a few spoke out against supporting the war effort.

Enlist today!
Your country needs you!
Not for learning how to shoot the big howitzers
Or how to rat tat tat the machine guns
Or how to fly o’er peaceful countries
Dropping bombs on harmless people
Or how to fix a bayonet and charge at
The harmless workers of another clime

Your country needs you
For the rebuilding of your shattered homeland -
Your homeland ruined by exploitation
By the tyrants of foreign nations
Who would use you as their catspaw
While they starved you to subjection.
George Padmore’s pacifist poem, published in the African Standard, 28 July 1939, two months before war broke out.
INDEX

Radio and Writing

The first radio broadcasts in Sub-Saharan Africa were made in the early 1920’s. The earliest recording of a radio broadcast was made in 1923 in South Africa. It was Mendelssohn’s “Auf Fluegeln des Gesanges.”africa_between_world_wars_10

Listen to the first radio broadcast on the continent of Africa – a piano performance of “Auf Fluegeln Des Gesanges”

Kenya had its own radio station in 1927, followed by Mozambique in 1933, and Senegal in 1939. But these were only broadcasting programmes made for expatriates.

It wasn’t until World War II that radio broadcasting was tailored to the needs of people in Africa. People wanted local news but also information about the theatres of war where their relatives and friends had gone to fight. For the first time there were broadcasts in African languages and dialects. People in Lagos could listen to the news in pidgin.

Hear about war broadcasts in pidgin with Lagos inhabitant Mrs. Sawyer

There were broadcasts in Hausa. The distinguished Hausa broadcaster (later Northern politician) Isa Kaita was based in Accra and unusually for that time gave detailed accounts of what was happening in the region, including a description of his own journey from Lagos to Accra under attack from German U-Boats.

Hear Isa Kaita’s account of broadcasting in the war

Hear Harry Tompson talk about the need for war time broadcasting

During the war the first language service for Africa was set up by the BBC. It was in Afrikaans and aimed to counterbalance the pro-Nazi stands taken by some Afrikaners. After the Second World War radio expanded throughout the continent broadcasting news, music and even drama. The radio became a key tool of government, and in the event of a coup, the radio station was the first stop for the coup makers, where they would then get their message broadcast to the nation.

Listen to Perci Nyayi, chief minister of Gambia, speaking on the inaugural broadcast of Radio Gambia

HUNGER FOR CONTACT
“There has been considerable interest shown in the question of petitions sent by the Ijebu Igbo Patriotic Society embodying requests for the opening of a Telegraph and Post Office at this town…But at present the ordinary man in the street who has to dispatch letters and telegraph messages has to go eleven miles to do so.”
Nigerian Daily Times, 4 Dec 1936.

BREAKING LINGUISTIC BARRIERS
Linguistic barriers began to be broken down as European literature was translated into African languages. Sol Plaatje for example translated Shakespeare into Tswana. There were different forms of creative writing from an African perspective in Ibo, Swahili and Nyanja.

In 1911 the Gold Coast thinker Casely Hayford wrote the first substantial imaginative piece of prose in English. Called Ethiopia Unbound it was a collection of reflections on the history of Ethiopia.

The first historical novel in English, Mhudi, was written by Sol Plaatje in 1912 and published 1920.

Themes of urban life and exploitation of labour were explored by the Senegalese writer Ousman Diop and Rene Maran, an official from Martinique, serving in the French administration in West Africa. Rene Maran’s novel Batoula won the top French literary prize, the Prix Goncourt in 1921.

The growth in literacy was reflected in the expansion of mail services, in the twenties and thirties.

IMPORTED DANCES
“As announced in these columns last month, the Ladies Private Social Cub had a very happy time with their friends on Christmas day when they were entertained by our esteemed guest E.O. Kogbe…Prizes were won in dancing by M.E. Norman Coker and Mrs. Phebean Taylor, Mr. B. Taylor and Mrs. E. Offiong and Mr. N.J. Ashwood with Mrs. B. Coker in waltz, foxtrot and one-step respectively.”
Daily Times, Nigeria, 1 Jan 1930.

IMPORTED DRAMA FOR CHILDREN
“Many will be pleased to learn that students of King’s College Budo are giving a performance of their pantomime, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves in the museum grounds at old Kampala…A pantomime with one hundred performers is certainly somewhat of a novelty to Kampala and it would seem worth taking opportunity of treating our young folk to an afternoon’s entertainment.”
Uganda Herald, 2 Dec 1936.

Air and Road

People in Africa travelled more in the 1930’s than they had ever done before. Roads and railways took migrant workers far and wide. They travelled from the cocoa farms of the Gold Coast, to the groundnut plantation of Senegal as well as to the mines of South Africa and coffee plantations of Uganda. This resulted in a constant exchange of tastes, ideas and perceptions, as well as a sense of place beyond the confines of the village or town.africa_between_world_wars_11

CARS AND LORRIES
Cars made their appearance in French West Africa at the turn of the century, not so very long after they took to the road in Europe in the 1890’s.

In 1907 the first car in Ethiopia arrived overland from Djibouti. The Alafin (king) of Oyo’s car was described in 1927 by the Pioneer newspaper:
“a Daimler-de-luxe in aluminum with sky ventilator and nine dazzling head-lights..the cynosure of all eyes.”

africa_between_world_wars_12Lorries became common in the 1920’s. They were extensively used for transporting groundnuts to the railway in Senegal. This was despite the fact that properly surfaced roads only became common in the 1950’s. On a noncommercial level, motorised transport increased the number of Muslims in Africa making their hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca.

Not everyone took to cars straight away. Although the Katikiro (Prime Minister) Apolo Kagwa of Buganda (in modern Uganda) was quite happy to travel by train, he was suspicious of the car when he first came across it in 1902 in England:

“After our friend Mr. Miller had returned from the dentist we got ready to go and stop with Sir T. Fowell Buxton, and drove to Liverpool Street station and got into the train.

At the end of our journey we found a carriage, and another kind of vehicle called a motor-car, which was driven by gas that comes off from some chemical, and was a very clever thing; however, we refused to go in it as it made so much dust and we got into the carriage and arrived safely to find out friends awaiting us and tea ready.”
Ham Mukasa secretary to Apolo Kagwa, Excerpt from Apolo Kagwa Discovers Britain.

In Nigeria as early as 1919 people were concerned about the lack of affordable imported cars:

“I am pleased to see a colleague who is a recognised authority in the motor world make a strong appeal to the head of our motor industry not to neglect the great West African market. He says he has first hand information that “there are not a dozen British cars or lorries in the whole country…

The loss of this trade is quite simple to account for. The British vehicle is high-priced, ill equipped in the matter of accessories, and does not lend itself so well as the American machine to local requirements and conditions.”
West Africa magazine, 9 Aug 1919.

By the 1930’s the wealthy men of West Africa and East Africa, whether European or Africa, were driving cars. As in Europe lack of highway code and excess speed could result in accidents.

“A collision occurred on the Kijura Road near Kahangi between cars belonging to Mr. M. Stead and the Kahuma of Burahya. One side of the Kahuma’s car was badly bent. Mr. Stead’s car had one wheel almost torn off. The collision occurred on a fairly open bit of road, and it is understood that legal action is pending”
Uganda Herald, 9 Dec 1936.

In the 1930’s, Nigeria’s first car importer died.

THE PASSING OF W.A. DAWODU
“The death of William Akinola Dawodu in his 51st year is of double significance: it marks the further depletion of a once very large family as well as the end of a unique career of African enterprise…William Akinola, born in 1879 and educated at the CMS Grammar School, learned mechanics at the Hussey Charity, where he afterwards became a master…

He established a small workshop at the Marina in 1905 and in 1907 his business had so well expanded that he had to remove to the site where his office and works now stand. In those palmy days he had another store at Egerton Square and a shop under his two storey building at Bishop Street.

A pioneer in vehicular trade, he introduced the famous Ford cars in Lagos and by 1919 he was sole agent for the Firestone Tyres, Dodge, Charlotte and Reo Motors and for the English, Star, Premier and Hobart cycles.

Like many pioneers he suffered terribly from the loss of his important motor agencies, which European firms eventually captured…He will be long remembered as one of our great captains of industry and a good and useful citizen.”
Daily Times, 7 Jan 1930.

AEROPLANES
The first aeroplanes in Africa were used in military campaigns. As early as 1911 the French used airpower in their campaign in Libya against the Sanussi. In 1916 the Egyptians used planes in Sudan’s Dafur region against the Mahdists. The RAF bombed the Nuer in Sudan in the 1920’s.

In 1936 Nairobi became an airbase for the RAF. In Liberia, in West Africa, Robertsfield Airport started its life as an American airbase during the Second World War.

THE MAIL SERVICE
The other main function of aeroplanes was to carry mail. In January 1932, Imperial Airways set up the first mail service from England to Africa, going through Cairo and then south on to Cape Town. The journey took 11 days.

Passenger services remained limited to short flights and ships remained the preferred way of travelling from Africa to Europe. In 1921 the Emir of Katsina took a ride in a Bristol aircraft while in Britain on the way to Mecca. He enjoyed the experience:

“We have finished the sights of the earth and have grasped them. Today we are seeing the sights of the heavens.”

For further information see African railways in the 19th century.

Women

The position of women changed in society partly in line with what was happening to men. In the rural areas, more and more men were taking up paid work in agriculture or mining, which often took them far away from their homes. So women and children ended up doing more agricultural work.africa_between_world_wars_13

In towns and cities women’s education under a Christian missionary direction took root. The oldest girls’ school in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Annie Walsh Memorial School, was set up in Sierra Leone in 1847. In 1907 the first girls’ school was established in Lagos.

Listen to Leti Hyde Forster one of the pupils at the school

Hear students singing at Annie Walsh Memorial School

Women’s views and interests began to be voiced in newspapers and magazines, for example the Nnamdi Azikwe’s publication The Pilot had a women’s page in it. The Sierra Leone Daily Mail featured women’s points of view and snap shots of domestic life on a regular basis.

“When my husband has finished a boiled egg, he always reverses the shell in the eggcup, making the egg appear untouched. This childish habit never fails to annoy me.”
Female Contributor to the Daily Mail, 1936.

Women’s organisations sprung up all over the continent. In Nigeria, the Lagos Women’s League was founded. In Mombasa, Kenya, Muslim dance societies were set up. In South Africa the Bantu Women’s League was created. A number of South African women writers emerged. Victoria Swaartbooi, Lilith Kakaza, and Violet Dube produced short stories and short novels, in Xhosa and Zulu.

POLITICAL WOMEN
Politically women had been active down the ages, often in prominent positions as spirit mediums or queens. For example, Queen Nzinga of Angola in the 16th and 17th century; Yaa Asantewa (1830-1921) of the Ashanti and Nehanda of Zimbabwe in the 19th century.

Between the world wars there are a number of instances of women challenging colonial authority. In 1929 political protest triggered among other things by high taxes in south eastern Nigeria, took on a form of mass militancy. Women went about attacking factories and government offices in Owerri Province.

During the Second World War, in Senegal, the Joola priestess Aline Sitoe protested against the demands put on farmers to produce large quantities of rice. Some women built on the status they acquired through their husbands. For example Mrs. Roberts, the wife of the first President of Liberia J. J. Roberts, was an energetic fundraiser and travelled abroad for that purpose long after her husband’s death.

“During a visit to London in 1910, this writer met Mrs. Roberts at the home of Mr. William Archer, the first coloured man to become Mayor of Battersea, a district of the Metropolis. Mrs. Roberts notwithstanding the weight of ninety one years, was clear in mind and wonderfully active. She was in England on official business.

In previous years she had secured considerable money to erect a hospital in Monrovia, and was endeavouring to enlist the support of English friends to supplement the same through generous gifts.”
Haile Q. Brown, Homespun Heroines.

World War Two: Social Impact

WORLD WAR 2
The Second World War was sparked off by the territorial ambitions in Europe and Africa of Germany’s Chancellor, Adolf Hitler. Africa was drawn in at a number of levels. Hitler wished to regain the German colonies which had been confiscated after the First World War. Hitler’s ally, Mussolini, the Italian leader, had invaded Ethiopia in 1935, arousing much indignation.africa_between_world_wars_03

“Sin-possessed and intoxicated with authority, Mussolini, the Fascist Dictator with his “smash and grab” doctrine of civilisation has announced his East Africa spoils to the world. He is also said to be having his hands in the Spanish mists. This is as should be expected of a child of darkness…

There by him we find his brother Hitler, the German dictator, dreaming his usual daydreams – a German Empire, with Russia as his armrest; France as his footstool, England as his manufacturing nation, and the colonies as labourers to work in his Nazi vineyard. His continuous dream is of world subjugation…”
The Comet, 5 Dec 1926.

RECRUITMENT
As in the First World War, the colonial powers needed African manpower. This time African troops (with the exception of those from South Africa who were not allowed to bear arms) were to play a much more combatant role both in and outside Africa. Half a million Africans fought for the French and the British during the war.

Listen to a Pathe news report of African troops in action

Hear Ghanaian war veterans singing of their experiences

Recruiting policies were much more sophisticated than they had been in the First World War. Anti-fascist propaganda was broadcast on the radio and disseminated through newspapers and poster campaigns, with dramatic cartoons and drawings depicting what life might be like under German rule.

On the whole people rallied to the war effort, angered by the invasion of Ethiopia.

Hear the troops singing of their going away to war

Enlistment to the armed forces was supposed to be voluntary. However, a good deal of pressure was also employed through local chiefs, and forced labour was used in mining and agricultural areas.

Listen to the men singing of fighting for their king and country

Despite a generally cooperative mood, there were some dissenting voices, notably that of ITA Wallace Johnson, Editor of the African Standard and tireless critic of the British in Sierra Leone. They responded by interning him for the duration of the war. He saw the war as simply serving the interests of capitalism and colonialism:

ENLIST TODAY!

Enlist today!
Your country needs you!
Not for learning how to shoot the big howitzers
Or how to rat tat tat the machine guns
Or how to fly o’er peaceful countries
Dropping bombs on harmless people
Or how to fix a bayonet and charge at
The harmless workers of another clime

Your country needs you
For the rebuilding of your shattered homeland -
Your homeland ruined by exploitation
By the tyrants of foreign nations
Who would use you as their catspaw
While they starved you to subjection
African Standard, 28 July 1939.

EFFECTS OF WAR
With access to Asian markets cut off, African commodities assumed great importance during the war. So in Liberia rubber production increased. The Belgian Congo was relied on for key minerals.

Britain tried to increase tin mining production in Nigeria to offset losses in the Far East. Workers were forced to work in the mines in appalling conditions and production rose only slightly. The scheme was abandoned in 1944. In 1945 there was a General Strike in Nigeria.

In 1941 miners in the Belgian Congo went on strike because of the high cost of living. The strike was broken by the army, and seventy strikers were killed.

Many imports were under license and food prices increased. Sea ports in Cape Town, Freetown, Mombasa, and Takoradi, as well as landing facilities for planes, were upgraded. Once America entered the war in 1942, Robertsfield Airport was built for B47 bombers to refuel, giving Liberia the longest runway in Africa to this day.

World War Two: Areas of Conflict

Conflict began in 1935 when Italy invaded and then occupied Ethiopia. The Emperor went into exile in Britain. This invasion led to a widespread willingness on the part of people in Africa to fight fascism. By 1941 with the help of African soldiers from west, east and South Africa the Italians were defeated in Ethiopia. Emperor Haile Selassie was then restored to his throne.africa_between_world_wars_14

North Africa was the other main theatre of war in Africa. Here the allies came very close to defeat at the hands of the Germans. But by 1943 Germany’s Afrika Corps had surrendered. In the same year African troops joined with American and British troops to invade Italy.

AFRICA AND FRANCE
Britain was never invaded by the Germans. But France was occupied in 1942. There was a Free French government in exile led by Charles De Gaulle. African colonies had to choose with whom to side. In Chad the black governor, Felix Eboue, originally from French Guyana in South America, made a bold and swift decision to support the Free French. The Governors of other French Equatorial territories fell in behind him. The capital of the French Congo, Brazzaville, became a temporary capital for Free France.

By contrast governors in French North Africa and French West Africa declared their loyalty to Marshall Petain’s puppet regime in France (the Vichy Government) which cooperated with the German occupation. When in 1942 the allies regained control of North Africa, the West African colonies abandoned their Vichy loyalties and declared for Free France.

FRENCH COLONIES IN WEST AFRICA
SHOWING TWO MAIN REGIONS AND COUNTRIES WITH MODERN NAMES

French West Africa (A.O.F. Afrique Occidental Francaise)

    Senegal
    Togo
    Guinea
    Benin
    Mauritania
    Tunisia
    Mali
    Bourkina Faso

French Equatorial Africa (A.E.F. Afrique Equatorial Francais)

    Chad
    Central African Republic
    Congo Brazzaville
    Gabon
    Niger
    Cameroun

AFRICA AND THE FAR EAST
In 1942 African troops from the Gold Coast and Kenya fought in Burma against the Japanese. The conditions were very hard and African troops were crucial in the campaign. The route to Burma went through India. Here nationalist leaders were already preparing for independence. This made a huge impression on African soldiers.

Hear Ghanaian war veterans singing of their experiences

Listen to Ghanaian Private Glover talk about his experiences fighting the Japanese

Listen to Major Hama Kima recalling how the Bible saved his life in the war

END OF WAR
When the war ended African troops were left with experiences which changed their lives. They also felt, more than ever, that European colonial powers owed them a great deal for the sacrifice they had made. Many men found themselves out of work when they returned home, and still, of course, under the rule of Europeans. As it was after the First World War, there was a feeling of disappointment, and a sense of being let down.

Listen to Corporal Agwu talking to his commanding officer about his future

In Britain some hotels and restaurants still operated a colour bar. In 1948, for example, Tom Boatin, a West African lecturer at London University, was refused service at Rules Restaurant in Maiden Lane. The management was forced to apologise after intervention by the Minister of Food.

The same year there were racist riots in Liverpool with members of the predominantly black sea faring community. At one point, a crowd of 2,000 attacked a hostel where black seamen lodged. But by this time the movement for independence was beginning to gather momentum.

Listen hereHear Abdi Noor recall ‘George’ who won the George Cross and died of cold as a night watch
Forces For Change

RECORDED MUSIC
The first gramophone players arrived in Africa shortly after they came into commercial use in Europe. In the 1930’s, the idea of catering for African modern music tastes was taken seriously by HMV. They produced a series of records (78 rpm shellac discs) under the title Gramophone Victor.

To begin with, the series featured music from Latin America and particularly Cuba, bands like Don Carlos and his Casino Orchestra and Rico’s Creole Band. They were hugely popular in East and West Africa and were known as GVs.

Listen to Don Carlos and his Casino Orchestra playing ‘The Peanut Vendor’

Listen to Rico’s Creole band playing ‘Cancion a Guarina’
Between World Wars Timeline

1914 - Beginning of World War I.
1916 - Riots in Yorubaland (Nigeria) over taxation.
1917 - Russian Revolution.
1918 - End of World War I.
1919 - 1st Pan-African Congress meets in London, Paris & Brussels.
Conference at Versailles to determine conditions of peace.
Young Baganda Association formed in Uganda.
Commoners Council formed in Basotholand.

1920 - Neo Destour party founded by Bourguiba in Tunisia.
The National Congress of British West Africa is founded by B. Casely Hayford of the Gold Coast and Dr. Akiwande Savage of Nigeria. It establishes branches in Sierra Leone, Gambia, Nigeria and the Gold Coast.
Calling for elected element in territorial legislature.

1921 - 2nd Pan African Congress meets in London & Lisbon.
Communist Party of South Africa formed.
1922 - Independence for Egypt.
1923 - 3rd Pan African Congress.
Nigerian National Democratic Party founded by Herbert Macaulay. (Elections of Lagos member of the legislative council, universal education, Africanisation of civil service, free trade and equal treatment of traders.)
1924 - ‘Ligue Universelle pour la Defense de la Race Noire’ founded in Paris by Dahomean lawyer Prince Kojo Tovalou Houeou.
1925 - West African Students’ Union founded in London.
1927 - 4th Pan African Congress held in New York.
Meeting in Brussels of Berlin-based “League against Imperialism.”
1928 - First Gikuyu newspaper, Muigwithania, published.
Gold Coast Federation of Cocoa Farmers founded.
1929 - Youth League founded by ITA Wallace Johnson in Sierra Leone and Gold Coast.
African Organisation of Tanganyika.
1933 - Hitler comes to power in Germany.
1934 - Nigerian Youth Movement established.
1935 - Italy invades Abyssinia (Ethiopia).
1936 - Emperor Haile Selassie goes into exile.
1939 - Beginning of World War II.
1941 - Emperor Haile Selassie returns to Ethiopia.
1942 - West Africans Burma campaign.
1943 - Vichy France gives up French West Africa.
1944 - Kenya Africa Union established.
Syndicat Agricole Africain formed in Ivory Coast by Felix Houphouet-Boigny.
1945 - End of World War II.
5th Pan African Congress held in Manchester, United Kingdom.

FURTHER READING

    UNESCO General History of Africa 1880-1935. Edited by A. Adu Boahen. University California Press, June 1993.
    The Colonial Moment in Africa: Essays on the Movement of Minds and Materials, 1900-1940. Edited by Andrew Roberts. Cambridge University Press, November 1990.
    Staying Power. By Peter Fry. Pluto Classic.
    West Africans at War. By P. Clarke. Ethnographica.
    West Africa under Colonial Rule. By M. Crowder. Hutchinson.
    Let Freedom Come. By Basil Davidson. Little Brown & Co.
    The Making of Modern Africa. By B. Freund. Macmillan.
    African Responses to Colonialism. By A. Boahen. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Deportation of Blacks in Nazi’s concentrations – The Attacks are holding on

I have long hesitated before writing these lines. First, because I did not want my thoughts to be misconstrued. Then, because I did not care that this text serve to all those who have made antisemitism their goodwill.
But yesterday, noting that an anonymous hand and maliciously had added a few lines on my wikipedia page, I decided to take the step to deliver my part of truth about a controversy that did not and still does no place for me.
I was, like many of you know, trouble with some people from the Jewish community, who have violently attacked after the publication in 2005, “Blacks in Nazi camps, seeking to disqualify my book. They then, from a typographical error and two factual errors, a name and a date (I caricature barely) up a cabal against me which was ultimately unsuccessful.
These attacks were, I believe, motivated by three emotions. A: These people, historians, moreover, had absolutely not supported either a single journalist left from who knows where that is encroaching on their turf, revealed that they had not said or wanted say for sixty years, namely that of blacks, so few they are, were deported to concentration camps.
Two: the success of “Black in Nazi camps” were in the shade all the books out at that time about the Holocaust, when we celebrated this year, the sixtieth anniversary of the liberation of concentration camps and some irritated that speaks plenty of other than their own deportation.

Three: the books of historians generally flow, with few exceptions, between one and two thousand copies. So when these gender specialists have learned that one journalist, out of nowhere, had met with his, in less than two months, sixty thousand copies, they were strangled with jealousy!
The pill is never really spent with these “great” historians and friends that I continue today in their condemnation spreading wherever they can, on the net, including sites like amazon to deter potential buyers of my book.
They return to any argument, the article they had published against my book in 2005, in Le Monde article to which I answered easily in the same newspaper, before initiating a trial, gained since the cons Prize organizers France Televisions, who also abused by these gentlemen had falsified their literary competition that I have won.
Moreover, at this price France Televisions, a well known historian did not hesitate when I was ahead of the vote in apostrophes, to influence the jury president Bernard Pivot, saying, I quote text message that “blacks in the Nazi camps” was a book of propaganda for blacks.
Imagine for a moment! If I had said the same thing in the book of this historian of the Shoah, what would I not hear? It would have been accused of antisemitism, disputing crimes against humanity, or incitement to racial hatred, and naturally I was vilified by the press.
But the most serious, in my view is that, to challenge my revelations, these historians were to lie by saying for example that the Nuremberg laws applied only to Jews, and that, in fact, contrary to I advanced, Blacks and Gypsies were not affected by these texts Hitler. Sad gravediggers of their own profession!
I am not, unlike these people, in a competition or memories of the victims, because it indeed is what it is. I believe in reality, like many of you, that the suffering of Jews is also ours and our suffering is theirs, as was also demonstrated these Jewish activists who have engaged with black during segregation in the United States and apartheid in South Africa. I am thinking of Joe Slovo, which I praised my courage in Soweto show dedicated to Nelson Mandela in 2008 played in the Caribbean and the Casino de Paris!
The attacks of these historians and their friends, who do I say so, fortunately does not represent the entire Jewish community, were at the time, started, curiously, the day after my refusal to participate in a demonstration pro-Israel .
I was invited, in fact, the Jewish bosses of France, to join the home in Paris with great fanfare, an Israeli minister …. I do not understand the meaning of this invitation, which I immediately declined, especially since I refused any recovery, including politics, my book.
To this was added the case Dieudonne. The comedian, whose talent I admire but do not share the views, had not rendered service by displaying “Black in Nazi camps” to photographers when he tried to defend its description Shoah as “memorial pornography”.
I disassociated myself from these comments and especially the mix was done with my book. But that was not enough. The newspaper Le Monde wanted, in addition to my statement that I write an open forum Dieudonne cons, which I obviously refused.
Surprisingly, a few weeks later, Le Monde gave an open forum to our three “great” historians to assassinate my book, before admitting, in private, behind closed doors, they had been abused. Yet I had to fight hard with my lawyer Aicha Conde master and journalist support within the World, for a right of reply and point by point dismantling the dishonesty charge against this book.
I do not pretend to believe that my work was beyond reproach. But, quite frankly, given what we could tell, it certainly does not deserve all this noise that would not, say the whole net for a book written by a white journalist.
Who, indeed, noted that factual errors are found, as in any book, including those published by historians, the famous “Négrologie” which has yet won a year earlier, the price that France Televisions’ m had been refused? It is true that this book by Stephen Smith is a charge against Africa and this year obviously, so that the French press did not even bother to relay the African protests against its contents.
I can not thank enough Askolovich Claude, a journalist at the time the Nouvel Observateur, which greatly supported me in these difficult times and helped to understand how some in this community that I admit to mistake. Same thing for the journalist Pierre Assouline, who was not afraid to denounce the “fundamentalists” started at my heels.
Should it be repeated five years later? I have no other aim in writing “Black in Nazi camps” to speak of the suffering of the deportees Caribbean, African, American, which had forgotten the ordeal. I also wanted, through them, to pay tribute to all those black soldiers, anonymous, hidden and despised, who perished on the battlefields of a war that was not theirs.
He must believe that it was too much to ask proponents of the official history who have felt pushed around if not exceeded. Lack of opportunity for them, it is just beginning!

Serge Bile

http://www.bondamanjak.com/monde/65-a-la-une/8710-noirs-dans-les-camps-nazis–les-attaques-continuent-.html

(BondaManJak 30/12/2009)

Noirs dans les camps nazis : les attaques continuent !
(BondaManJak

J’ai longtemps hésité avant d’écrire ces lignes. D’abord, parce que je ne voulais pas que ma pensée soit mal interprétée. Ensuite, parce que je ne tenais pas à ce que ce texte serve à tous ceux qui ont fait de l’antisémitisme leur fond de commerce.
Mais hier, en constatant qu’une main anonyme et mal intentionnée avait encore ajouté quelques lignes sur ma fiche wikipedia, j’ai décidé de franchir le pas pour livrer ma part de vérité sur une polémique qui n’avait pas et n’a toujours pas lieu d’être à mes yeux.
J’ai eu, comme beaucoup d’entre vous le savent, maille à partir avec quelques personnes de la communauté juive, qui m’ont violemment attaqué après la parution, en 2005, de « Noirs dans les camps nazis », en cherchant à disqualifier mon livre. Ils avaient alors, à partir d’une faute de frappe et de deux erreurs factuelles, sur un nom et une date, (je caricature à peine) monter toute une cabale contre moi qui n’a finalement pas abouti.
Ces attaques étaient, selon moi, motivées par trois sentiments. Un : ces gens, historiens au demeurant, n’avaient absolument pas supporté que ce soit un simple journaliste, sorti d’on ne sait où, qui ait, empiétant sur leur pré carré, révélé ce que eux n’avaient pas dit ou voulu dire pendant soixante ans, à savoir que des Noirs, si peu nombreux soient-ils, ont été déportés dans les camps de concentration.
Deux : le succès de « Noirs dans les camps nazis » faisaient de l’ombre à tous les livres sortis à l’époque sur la Shoah, alors qu’on célébrait, cette année la, le soixantième anniversaire de la libération des camps de concentration et que certains s’agaçaient qu’on parle abondamment d’une autre déportation que la leur.

Trois : les livres d’historiens s’écoulent généralement, à quelques rares exceptions près, entre mille et deux mille exemplaires. Alors, quand ces spécialistes du genre ont appris qu’un simple journaliste, sorti d’on ne sait où, avait atteint, avec le sien, en moins de deux mois, les soixante mille exemplaires, ils se sont étranglés de jalousie !
La pilule n’est jamais vraiment passée chez ces « grands » historiens et leurs amis qui me poursuivent encore aujourd’hui de leur vindicte en se répandant, chaque fois qu’ils le peuvent, sur le net, y compris sur des sites comme amazon pour dissuader les acheteurs potentiels de mon livre.
Ils reprennent, pour tout argument, l’article qu’ils avaient publié contre mon livre, en 2005, dans Le Monde, article auquel j’avais répondu aisément dans le même journal, avant d’engager un procès, gagné depuis, contre les organisateurs du Prix France Télévisions qui, abusés eux aussi par ces messieurs, avaient falsifié leur concours littéraire que j’aurais dû remporter.
D’ailleurs, lors de ce Prix France Télévisions, une historienne bien connue n’avait pas hésité, alors que j’étais en tête des suffrages, à apostropher, pour l’influencer, le président du jury, Bernard Pivot, en disant, je cite texto, que « Noirs dans les camps nazis » était un livre de propagande pour les Noirs.
Imaginez un seul instant ! Si moi, j’avais dis la même chose du livre de cette historienne sur la Shoah, que n’aurais-je pas entendu ? On m’aurait accusé d’antisémitisme, de contestation de crime contre l’humanité, voire d’incitation à la haine raciale, et j’aurais été naturellement vilipendé par toute la presse.
Mais le plus grave, selon moi, c’est que, pour contester mes révélations, ces historiens ont été jusqu’à mentir en affirmant par exemple que les lois de Nuremberg ne visaient que les juifs, et que, du coup, contrairement à ce que j’avançais, les Noirs et les tziganes n’étaient pas concernés par ces textes hitlériens. Tristes fossoyeurs de leur propre profession !
Je ne suis pas, contrairement à ces personnes, dans une concurrence des mémoires ou des victimes, car c’est bel et bien de ça qu’il s’agit. Je crois en réalité, comme beaucoup d’entre vous, que la souffrance des juifs est aussi la nôtre et que notre souffrance est également la leur, comme l’ont d’ailleurs démontré ces activistes juifs qui se sont engagés, aux côtés des Noirs, pendant la ségrégation aux Etats-Unis et l’apartheid en Afrique du Sud. Je pense notamment à Joe Slovo, dont j’ai loué le courage dans mon spectacle Soweto consacré à Nelson Mandela joué en 2008 aux Antilles et au Casino de Paris !
Les attaques de ces historiens et de leurs amis qui, dois-je le préciser, ne représentent fort heureusement pas toute la communauté juive, ont, à l’époque, commencé, curieusement, au lendemain de mon refus de participer à une manifestation pro israélienne.
J’avais été invité, en effet, par le patronat juif de France, à m’associer à l’accueil à Paris, en grandes pompes, d’un… ministre israélien. Je ne comprenais pas le sens de cette invitation, que j’ai aussitôt déclinée, d’autant que je refusais toute récupération, y compris politique, de mon livre.
A cela, s’était ajoutée l’affaire Dieudonné. L’humoriste, dont j’admire le talent mais ne partage pas les points de vue, ne m’avait pas rendu service en exhibant « Noirs dans les camps nazis » devant les photographes, lorsqu’il avait voulu se défendre pour ses propos qualifiant la Shoah de « pornographie mémorielle ».
Je m’étais désolidarisé de ces propos et surtout de l’amalgame qui était fait avec mon livre. Mais cela ne suffisait pas. Le journal Le Monde voulait, en plus de mon communiqué, que j’écrive une tribune libre contre Dieudonné, ce que j’avais évidemment refusé.
Etonnement, quelques semaines plus tard, Le Monde accordait une tribune libre à nos trois « grands » historiens pour assassiner mon livre, avant de reconnaitre, en privé, en catimini, qu’ils avaient été abusés. Il me fallut pourtant batailler ferme, avec mon avocate, maitre Aïcha Condé, et le soutien de journaliste à l’intérieur du Monde, pour obtenir un droit de réponse et démonter point par point la malhonnêteté de la charge contre ce livre.
Je n’ai pas la prétention de croire que mon travail était exempt de tout reproche. Mais, très franchement, au vu de ce qu’on pouvait en dire, il ne méritait assurément pas tout ce tintamarre qu’on n’aurait pas fait, disons le tout net, pour un livre écrit par un journaliste blanc.
Qui, en effet, a relevé les erreurs factuelles qui se trouvent, comme dans tout livre, y compris ceux publiés par des historiens, dans le fameux « Négrologie » qui a pourtant obtenu, un an plus tôt, le Prix France Télévisions qui m’avait été refusé ? Il est vrai que ce livre de Stephen Smith est une charge contre l’Afrique et que cet exercice va de soi, au point que la presse française n’a même pas pris la peine de relayer les protestations africaines contre son contenu.
Je ne remercierai jamais assez Claude Askolovich, journaliste à l’époque au Nouvel Observateur, qui m’a beaucoup soutenu dans ces moments délicats, et aidé à comprendre le fonctionnement de certains dans cette communauté que j’avoue méconnaitre. Même chose pour le journaliste Pierre Assouline, qui n’a pas craint de dénoncer les « intégristes » lancés à mes trousses.
Faut-il le redire cinq après ? Je n’ai pas eu d’autre but, en écrivant « Noirs dans les camps nazis », que de parler de la souffrance des déportés antillais, africains, américains, dont on avait oublié le calvaire. J’ai voulu également, à travers eux, rendre hommage à tous ces soldats noirs, anonymes, occultés et méprisés, qui ont péri sur les champs de bataille d’une guerre qui n’était pas la leur.
Il faut croire que c’était trop demander aux tenants de l’Histoire officielle qui se sont sentis bousculés pour ne pas dire dépassés. Manque de chance pour eux, ça ne fait que commencer !

Serge Bilé

http://www.bondamanjak.com/monde/65-a-la-une/8710-noirs-dans-les-camps-nazis–les-attaques-continuent-.html

(BondaManJak 30/12/2009)

Gbagbo : «En 2002, Paris prévoyait de me renverser»
Propos recueillis à Abidjan par Pierre Prier
61657
Le président ivoirien, Laurent Gbagbo, revient sur la situation politique actuelle de son pays et sur la fin de la guerre civile en 2007. Après six reports, le président ivoirien Laurent Gbagbo s’est entendu avec l’opposition pour tenir l’élection présidentielle entre fin février et début mars. Le scrutin devrait mettre fin à la période tumultueuse ouverte en 2002 avec une tentative de coup d’État venue du nord du pays. Les rapports de la France avec cet opposant historique au président Houphouët-Boigny se sont dégradés, Paris reprochant à Gbagbo de ne pas jouer le jeu des accords de Marcoussis, encadrés par la France et instaurant un gouvernement d’union nationale, Gbagbo accusant la France de vouloir sa perte.

LE FIGARO. L’ONU et d’autres vous pressent de fixer une date pour la présidentielle. Que leur répondez-vous ?

Laurent GBAGBO. Je n’ai pas de date à donner. C’est la Commission électorale indépendante qui propose. La CEI a beaucoup de travail, car elle délivre en même temps les cartes d’électeurs et les cartes d’identité. La CEI dépend de l’État pour son financement, et je suis bien placé pour savoir que l’État ne dispose pas toujours de l’argent qu’il faut.

LE FIGARO. Quels sont les obstacles à l’établissement des listes électorales ?

Nous avons tous sous-estimé les difficultés. Il y avait une voie plus facile. En 2007, après la signature des accords de Ouagadougou (qui ont mis fin à la guerre civile et amené le leader de la rébellion Guillaume Soro au poste de premier ministre, NDLR), j’avais proposé de faire remettre à jour les listes de 2000 par les préfets. On aurait pu tenir des élections en décembre 2007, ou courant 2008. On a choisi une autre solution. On a dépensé des sommes folles pour établir des cartes d’identité numériques, pour un résultat qui n’est pas meilleur. Mais nous sommes presque à la fin du processus.

LE FIGARO. Il reste plus d’un million de cas litigieux. Seront-ils résolus à temps ?

Oui. Il n’y a plus de débat politique. Il ne s’agit plus que de cas individuels.

LE FIGARO. Peut-on tenir une bonne élection quand dans le Nord, malgré l’installation des préfets, l’ex-rébellion contrôle les ressources naturelles, prélève des taxes…

On peut en tout cas tenir une élection. C’est un débat qui va s’achever bientôt. C’est très difficile de sortir d’une rébellion.

LE FIGARO. Vos relations avec la France ont été tumultueuses depuis le coup d’État manqué de 2002. Avec le recul, comment jugez-vous cette période ?

Je témoignerai un jour en détail. Mais je pense que les dirigeants français de l’époque n’ont pas été sages. Ils ont nui à la France, et ils ont nui à l’Afrique.

LE FIGARO. Charles Pasqua a accusé Dominique de Villepin, alors secrétaire général de l’Élysée, d’avoir «planifié le renversement de deux chefs d’État africains». Tout le monde a pensé que vous étiez l’un des deux concernés par l’allusion. Et vous ?

Eh bien, je fais partie de «tout le monde».

LE FIGARO. Pensez-vous toujours que les accords de Marcoussis vous ont été imposés ?

Oui, et c’était une très mauvaise idée. S’il fallait recommencer Marcoussis, je ne le recommencerais pas. Mais c’est du passé. On est sorti de la crise par l’accord de Ouagadougou, pas par Marcoussis.

LE FIGARO. Quels sont aujourd’hui vos rapports avec la France ?

Je ne porte pas de jugement idéologique. Je dis que depuis que Nicolas Sarkozy a succédé à Jacques Chirac, je me sens mieux. Je me sens plus à l’aise pour mener tranquillement la sortie de crise.

LE FIGARO. Deux juges français viennent de demander l’aide de la Cour pénale internationale dans la disparition du journaliste français Guy-André Kieffer. La demande vise votre épouse et plusieurs autres personnalités ivoiriennes. Que répondez-vous ?

Depuis le départ, certains juges français, non seulement font fausse route, mais tiennent à une politisation de la disparition du malheureux Kieffer. Quelle est la raison qui pousserait des personnalités politiques ivoiriennes à faire disparaître quelqu’un qui est somme toute un citoyen lambda ? Ce n’est pas parce qu’il est français qu’il est important. En France, des dizaines de gens disparaissent, et on ne va pas chercher du côté de la présidence de la République. Certes, c’est le droit des juges d’enquêter, mais cela commence à bien faire. Toutefois je ne pense pas que l’exécutif français soit impliqué dans cette demande.

LE FIGARO. La «Françafrique» existe-t-elle encore ?

Si des gens songent à renverser un chef d’État dans un pays qui n’est pas le leur, alors, oui, elle existe encore.

LE FIGARO. La France est-elle toujours un partenaire privilégié de la Côte d’Ivoire ?

Les rapports de l’Afrique et de l’Occident ont changé avec la fin de la guerre froide. Mandela a été sorti de prison et présenté comme un modèle par ceux-là mêmes qui le qualifiaient de terroriste. Les États africains ont accru leur indépendance. C’est valable pour la Côte d’Ivoire.

LE FIGARO. Mais y a-t-il encore des liens particuliers sur le plan économique ?

Les ex-colonies françaises s’ouvrent à tous ceux qui veulent les aider. Certes, elles sont plus à l’aise avec la France. Mais la langue n’est pas un lien qui maintient prisonnier. Le Rwanda, francophone à l’indépendance, est sous nos yeux en train de devenir anglophone. Les peuples africains s’adressent à d’autres pays à cause de la lourdeur et des conditions parfois humiliantes posées par l’ancienne puissance coloniale, ou par l’Union européenne. Aujourd’hui, il est plus facile de discuter avec la Chine, l’Inde ou l’Iran pour l’industrie, et avec les pays arabes pour les prêts. Nous construisons l’autoroute Abidjan-Yamoussoukro avec des prêts de la Banque islamique de développement et de la Banque arabe pour le développement en Afrique. Ce n’est pas antifrançais, mais l’occasion se présentait, et la discussion était plus facile.

LE FIGARO. La Côte d’Ivoire vient tout de même de bénéficier de l’initiative PPTE (pays pauvres très endettés) du FMI et de la Banque mondiale, ainsi que d’importantes remises de dettes par la France.

Quand on est un pays trop endetté, comme c’est le cas de la Côte d’Ivoire à cause des régimes précédents, le FMI et la Banque mondiale sont des recours indispensables, principalement parce que leur label nous ouvre la porte des prêteurs privés.

LE FIGARO. Il y a l’Afrique de l’espoir et celle qui désespère. Est-elle vouée aux juntes militaires, comme votre voisin guinéen ?

Moi, je ne désespère pas. Simplement il faut que les Guinéens, et la classe politique trouvent une solution interne et volontariste, comme nous l’avons fait. Mais l’Europe ne doit pas regarder la Guinée avec condescendance. Où en était la France en matière de stabilité, cinquante ans après la prise de la Bastille ? C’est cent ans après les indépendances que l’on pourra juger.

LE FIGARO. En Europe, il a fallu beaucoup de temps et de nombreuses guerres pour tracer des frontières définitives. En ira-t-il de même en Afrique ?

La décision de l’Organisation de l’union africaine, en 1963, de ne pas remettre en cause les frontières coloniales a été sage. Mais je pense que les États africains ne resteront pas dans ces frontières. Je ne pense pas à des guerres, mais à des alliances et à des accords. Il y aura des regroupements sous forme de fédérations ou de confédérations, qui ne seront pas construites sur des bases idéologiques mais pragmatiques

Gbagbo: “In 2002, Paris plans to overthrow me”
Interviewed in Abidjan by Peter Pray
61657
Ivorian President Laurent Gbagbo, returns on the current political situation in his country and end civil war in 2007. After six postponements, Ivorian President Laurent Gbagbo has agreed with the opposition to hold presidential elections between late February and early March. The vote should put an end to the tumultuous period opened in 2002 with an attempted coup came from the north. Reports from France with the historical opponent to President Houphouet-Boigny deteriorated, Paris accusing Gbagbo of not playing the game of the Marcoussis agreements, supervised by France and establishing a national unity government, accusing Gbagbo France want his loss.

LE FIGARO. The UN and others are urging you to set a date for the presidential election. What do you say?

Laurent Gbagbo. I have no time to give. The Election Commission proposes independent. The IEC has a lot of work because it delivers the same time cards and voter identity cards. The IEC depends on the state for funding, and I am well placed to know that the state does not always need money.

LE FIGARO. What are the barriers to voter registration?

We all underestimated the difficulties. There was an easier way. In 2007, after the signing of Ouagadougou agreements (which ended the civil war and brought the rebel leader Guillaume Soro as prime minister, Ed), I proposed to do to update the lists of 2000 by the prefects. We could hold elections in December 2007 or during 2008. We chose another solution. It has spent huge sums of money to establish digital identity cards, a result that is not better. But we are nearing the end of the process.

LE FIGARO. It is more than a million cases at issue. Will they be resolved in time?

Yes. There is more political debate. It is more than individual cases.

LE FIGARO. Can we hold a good election when in the North, despite the installation of prefects, the former rebel control natural resources, levy taxes …

We can at least hold an election. It is a debate that will end soon. It’s very difficult to escape a rebellion.

LE FIGARO. Your relations with France have been tumultuous since the failed coup of 2002. With hindsight, how do you this time?

I will give one day in detail. But I think the French leaders of the time were not wise. They damaged the France, and they have hurt Africa.

LE FIGARO. Charles Pasqua has accused Dominique de Villepin, then secretary general of the Elysee, of having “planned the overthrow of two African heads of state.” Everyone thought you were one of the two affected by the allusion. And you?

Well, I’m part of “everybody.”

LE FIGARO. Do you still think the Marcoussis agreements you have been charged?

Yes, and it was a very bad idea. If he had to start Marcoussis, I do not do it again. But it’s past. It is out of the crisis by the Ouagadougou agreement, not by Marcoussis.

LE FIGARO. What are your present relationship with France?

I do not judge ideology. I say that since Nicolas Sarkozy succeeded Jacques Chirac, I feel better. I feel more comfortable lead quietly out of crisis.

LE FIGARO. Two French judges are seeking help from the International Criminal Court in the disappearance of French journalist Guy-André Kieffer. Demand is your wife and several other senior Ivorian. How do you respond?

Since the beginning, some French judges are not only wrong, but take a politicization of the unfortunate disappearance of Kieffer. What is the reason why the Ivorian politicians to remove someone who is after all a citizen lambda? Just because it is French that is important. In France, dozens of people disappear, and it does not look to the Presidency of the Republic. Admittedly, this is the right of judges to investigate, but it starts to do well. However I do not think the French executive is involved in this application.

LE FIGARO. The “Françafrique is she now?

If people are considering reversing a head of state in a country not their own, then yes, it still exists.

LE FIGARO. The France she is still a privileged partner of Cote d’Ivoire?

Reports from Africa and the West have changed with the end of the Cold War. Mandela was released from prison and presented as a model by the very people who called terrorism. African states have increased their independence. It is valid for Côte d’Ivoire.

LE FIGARO. But is there still a special relationship in economic terms?

The former French colonies open to all who want to help. Although they are more comfortable with France. But language is not a link that holds prisoner. Rwanda, French independence, is under our eyes becoming English. The African people turn to other countries because of the cumbersome and sometimes humiliating conditions imposed by the former colonial power, or the European Union. Today, it is easier to discuss with China, India and Iran for the industry, and with Arab countries for loans. We build the highway Abidjan-Yamoussoukro with loans from the Islamic Development Bank and Arab Bank for Development in Africa. This is not anti-French, but the opportunity presented itself, and discussion was easier.

LE FIGARO. Côte d’Ivoire is still qualify for the HIPC (Heavily Indebted Poor Countries) IMF and World Bank, as well as significant debt forgiveness by France.

When a country is too indebted, as is the case of Côte d’Ivoire due to the previous regimes, the IMF and World Bank are needed action, mainly because their label opens the door for private lenders.

LE FIGARO. It is Africa’s hope and the despair that. Is she doomed to military juntas, as your neighbor Guinea?

I do not despair. Simply requires that the Guineans, and politicians find an internal solution and proactive as we did. But Europe does not look Guinea with condescension. Where was France in stability, fifty years after the storming of the Bastille? It’s a hundred years after independence we can judge.

LE FIGARO. In Europe, it took a long time and many wars to draw final borders. As will he the same in Africa?

The decision of the Organization of African Unity in 1963 not to challenge the colonial borders was wise. But I think that African states will not remain within these boundaries. I do not believe in wars, but alliances and agreements. There will be consolidation in the form federations or confederations, which will not be built on ideological but pragmatic.

Gbagbo: “Im 2002, France wollte mich als Präsident ausradieren”
Interview in Abidjan von Peter Pray
61657
Ivorischen Präsidenten Laurent Gbagbo, kehrt auf die aktuelle politische Lage in seinem Land und Ende des Bürgerkriegs im Jahr 2007. Nach sechs Verschiebungen hat ivorischen Präsidenten Laurent Gbagbo mit der Opposition stimmte Präsidentschaftswahlen zwischen Ende Februar und Anfang März zu halten. Die Abstimmung sollte ein Ende der turbulenten Zeit legte sich das 2002 eröffnete mit einem versuchten Staatsstreich kam aus dem Norden. Berichte aus Frankreich mit dem historischen Gegner von Präsident Houphouet-Boigny verschlechtert, Paris wirft Gbagbo, nicht das Spiel das Abkommen von Marcoussis, gefolgt von Frankreich überwacht und zur Schaffung einer Regierung der nationalen Einheit und wirft Gbagbo Frankreich will seinen Verlust.

LE FIGARO. Die UNO und andere werden Sie aufgefordert, ein Datum für die Präsidentschaftswahlen festgelegt. Was sagen Sie?

Laurent Gbagbo. Ich habe keine Zeit zu geben. Die Wahlkommission schlägt unabhängig. Die IEC ist eine Menge Arbeit, weil sie zur gleichen Zeit Karten und Wähler Personalausweise liefert. Die IEC ist abhängig vom Zustand für die Finanzierung, und ich bin gut in der Lage zu wissen, dass der Staat nicht immer Geld brauchen.

LE FIGARO. Was sind die Hindernisse für die Registrierung der Wähler?

Wir alle unterschätzen die Schwierigkeiten. Es gab einen einfacheren Weg. Im Jahr 2007, nach der Unterzeichnung des Ouagadougou Vereinbarungen (das Ende des Bürgerkriegs und brachte die Rebellenführer Guillaume Soro zum Premierminister, Ed), schlug ich zu tun, um die Liste der 2000 von den Präfekten zu aktualisieren. Wir könnten Wahlen im Dezember 2007 zu halten oder während des Jahres 2008. Wir haben uns für eine andere Lösung. Es hat riesige Summen ausgegeben, um digitale Personalausweise zu schaffen, ein Ergebnis, das nicht besser. Aber wir haben das Ende des Prozesses nähern.

LE FIGARO. Es ist mehr als eine Million Fälle in Frage. Werden sie in der Zeit gelöst werden?

Ja. Es ist mehr die politische Debatte. Es ist mehr als Einzelfälle.

LE FIGARO. Können wir eine gute Wahl, wenn sie im Norden, trotz der Installation von Präfekten, der ehemaligen Rebellen kontrollierten natürlichen Ressourcen, Steuern erheben …

Wir können zumindest eine Wahl abgehalten. Es ist eine Debatte, die bald zu Ende sein wird. Es ist sehr schwierig, einen Aufstand zu entkommen.

LE FIGARO. Ihre Beziehungen mit Frankreich wurden stürmisch nach dem gescheiterten Staatsstreich von 2002. Im Nachhinein nicht, wie Sie diese Zeit?

Ich werde eines Tages im Detail. Aber ich denke, die Französisch Führer der Zeit wurden nicht weise. Sie beschädigten das Frankreich, und sie haben Afrika verletzt.

LE FIGARO. Charles Pasqua hat Dominique de Villepin, dem damaligen Generalsekretär des Elysée, der mit “vorgeworfen geplant von zwei afrikanischen Staats-und Regierungschefs zu stürzen.” Jeder dachte, Sie waren einer der beiden betroffenen durch die Anspielung. Und du?

Nun, ich bin Teil von “alle”.

LE FIGARO. Weißt du noch, daß das Abkommen von Marcoussis Sie zahlen gewesen sein?

Ja, und es war eine sehr schlechte Idee. Wenn er zu Marcoussis zu starten, kann ich es nicht wieder tun. Aber es ist Vergangenheit. Es ist aus der Krise durch die Vereinbarung von Ouagadougou, die nicht von Marcoussis.

LE FIGARO. Was sind Ihre derzeitige Beziehung zu Frankreich?

Ich urteile nicht Ideologie. Ich sagen, dass seit Nicolas Sarkozy Jacques Chirac gelungen, ich fühle mich besser. Ich fühle mich eher komfortablen Vorsprung ruhig aus der Krise.

LE FIGARO. Zwei Französisch Richter sucht Hilfe aus dem Internationalen Strafgerichtshof in das Verschwinden von Französisch-Journalist Guy-André Kieffer. Demand ist deine Frau und einige andere hochrangige Côte d’Ivoire. Wie reagieren Sie?

Seit Beginn sind einige Französisch Richter nicht nur falsch, sondern nehmen eine Politisierung der unglücklichen Verschwinden von Kieffer. Was ist der Grund, warum die ivorischen Politiker jemand, der zu entfernen, nachdem alle Bürger Lambda? Nur weil es ist Französisch, das ist wichtig. In Frankreich, verschwinden Dutzende von Menschen, und es nicht auf den Präsidenten der Republik zu suchen. Zugegeben, dies ist das Recht der Richter zu prüfen, aber es fängt an gut zu machen. Aber ich glaube nicht, dass Französisch die Exekutive ist dem vorliegenden Antrag beteiligt.

LE FIGARO. Die “Françafrique ist sie jetzt?

Wenn die Menschen in Betracht ziehen Umkehr ein Staatsoberhaupt in einem Land nicht ihre eigenen, dann ja, es existiert immer noch.

LE FIGARO. Das Frankreich ist sie noch ein privilegierter Partner der Cote d’Ivoire?

Berichte aus Afrika und dem Westen haben mit dem Ende des Kalten Krieges verändert. Mandela wurde aus dem Gefängnis entlassen und als ein Modell von den Menschen, die den Terrorismus aufgerufen vorgestellt. Afrikanische Staaten haben ihre Unabhängigkeit erhöht. Es ist für Côte d’Ivoire gültig.

LE FIGARO. Aber gibt es noch eine besondere Beziehung in wirtschaftlicher Hinsicht?

Die ehemaligen Kolonien Französisch offen für alle, die helfen wollen. Obwohl sie noch komfortabler mit Frankreich. Aber die Sprache ist nicht ein Link, der Gefangene hält. Ruanda, Französisch Unabhängigkeit, ist unter unseren Augen immer Englisch. Die African people wiederum in andere Länder wegen der Schwerfälligkeit und erniedrigenden Bedingungen von der ehemaligen Kolonialmacht erhoben, oder die Europäische Union. Heute ist es einfacher, mit China, Indien und Iran erörtern für die Industrie und mit den arabischen Ländern für Darlehen. Wir bauen die Autobahn-Abidjan Yamoussoukro mit Darlehen der Islamic Development Bank und die Arab Bank für Entwicklung in Afrika. Dies ist nicht anti-Französisch, aber die Gelegenheit bot sich, und die Diskussion war leichter.

LE FIGARO. Côte d’Ivoire ist noch qualifizieren sich für die HIPC (Heavily Indebted Poor Countries) von IWF und Weltbank, sowie erhebliche Schuldenerlass durch Frankreich.

Wenn ein Land ist zu verdanken, wie im Fall von Côte d’Ivoire aufgrund des früheren Regimes, dem IWF und Weltbank sind Maßnahmen erforderlich, vor allem weil ihr Label öffnet die Tür für private Geldgeber.

LE FIGARO. Es ist Hoffnung in Afrika und die Verzweiflung, die. Ist sie dazu verurteilt, Militärjuntas, wie Ihr Nachbar Guinea?

Ich weiß nicht verzweifeln. Simply verlangt, dass die Guineer und Politiker finden eine interne Lösung und proaktive wie wir. Aber Europa sieht nicht so aus Guinea mit Herablassung. Wo war Frankreich in die Stabilität, fünfzig Jahre nach dem Sturm auf die Bastille? Es ist hundert Jahre nach der Unabhängigkeit können wir beurteilen.

LE FIGARO. In Europa, dauerte es eine lange Zeit und viele Kriege zu ziehen, um die endgültigen Grenzen. Wie wird er das gleiche in Afrika?

Die Entscheidung der Organisation für Afrikanische Einheit im Jahre 1963 nicht auf die kolonialen Grenzen Herausforderung war weise. Aber ich denke, dass die afrikanischen Staaten nicht innerhalb dieser Grenzen bleibt. Ich glaube nicht an Kriegen zu glauben, aber Allianzen und Vereinbarungen. Es wird die Konsolidierung in Form Vereinigungen oder Verbände, die nicht aus ideologischen, sondern pragmatisch gebaut werden.